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THE UNIVERSITY 
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A sixteenth century conception of the three founders of early mediaeval anatomy, from the 
title-page of the Opera Ysaac, 1515. 


ANATOMICAL TEXTS OF THE EARLIER 
MIDDLE AGES 


A STUDY IN THE TRANSMISSION OF CULTURE 


WITH A REVISED LATIN TEXT OF ANATOMIA COPHONIS 
AND TRANSLATIONS OF Four TEXTS 


BY 


GEORGE W. CorRNER, M. D. 


Professor of Anatomy in the University of Rochester 





THE LIGRARY OF fit 
MAY 3 1 1927 


UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 


PUBLISHED BY THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON 
WASHINGTON, JANUARY 1927 


CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON 
PUBLICATION No. 364 


NATIONAL PUBLISHING COMPANY 
WASHINGTON, D. C. 





lo \\ 
C815a 


FOREWORD 


The anatomist, marching between the philosopher and the physician, 
has ever been their companion in the vanguard of man’s struggle for 
truth and freedom through self-understanding. This is particularly true 
of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when Europe received again the 
Graeco-Roman learning preserved in Islam during Europe’s Dark Ages. 
Mathematics and medicine, with its ancillary sciences, were the first to 
be taken over from the Orient and the first to be revised according to the 
scholastic method. In this movement the anatomists took a notable part 
in maintaining the continuity of thought and method. This much we 
know from the anatomical texts scattered throughout medical manu- 
scripts of the earlier Middle Ages, sharing the attention of copyists and 
students with the clinical works of Galen and the Arabs; but we know 
all too little about the order and the dates of composition of the mediaeval 
anatomies, or of their sources and their authorship. Older studies in this 
field were based upon necessarily incomplete information, while recent 
contributions have mostly dealt with limited aspects of the problem. 
Meanwhile, the general study of mediaeval science has been advancing 
rapidly, and the medical historian finds many new sources open for 
investigation. For this reason I have attempted in the following pages 
to summarize recent research and to clear up, if possible, by my own 
studies, some of the obscure phases of anatomy in the earlier Middle 
Ages. 

This study, begun some years ago, has been completed during a period 
of residence in England and France made possible by the University of 
Rochester. My gratitude is due especially to Dr. Charles Singer, Lec- 
turer in the History of Science in University College, London, who 
provided constant encouragement and help and placed his library and 
his collection of notes and records freely at my disposal. Among others 
to whom I owe thanks are Mrs. Charles Singer; M. Wickersheimer, 
Librarian of the University of Strasbourg; M. Huet, genial custodian 
of the Municipal Library at Chartres; the officials of the Chartres Library 
and of all the other libraries mentioned in the text; Professor C. H. 
Haskins of Harvard for paleographic advice; and my wife, for frequent 
help and criticism. | 

GEoRGE W. CORNER. 
ROCHESTER, NEW York, 
September 1926. 


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CONTENTS 


FOREWORD 


I. INTRODUCTION ote te lpn eae nee 
The Dark Ages: The legend of Salernum 
Salernum before Constantine 
Constantine the African 
Manuscripts and printed editions ‘of Conant 
The Pantegni: Ali Abbas : 
The literature of Salernum: our materials for its Pee 


Il. TwetrrH-Century Texts. 


A. Demonstrations of Anatomy. 


PAGE 


11 
12 
14 
14 


16 


The First Salernitan Anatomical Demonstration (Anatomia Cophonis, 


Anatomia parva Galent) 
The Second Salernitan Demonstration z aut eEs 
Analysis of the Second Salernitan Demonstration; sources of its contents 


Probable date and source of the First Salernitan Anatomical Demon- 
stration : 


Anatomia Mauri 
Summary Natt: 
B. Systematic Descri ie Rratiiiics 
Anatomia Ricardit (Salernitant) and Anatomia Magistri Nicolai 
Contents and Sources . 
Probable date. : 
Scholasticism in medizval Rone 


III. A THirreeNtH-CENTURY TEXT. 
Anatomia Vivorum (Anatomia Ricardi Anglici) 
Sources of the Anatomia Vivorum. Avicenna and Rhazes 
Date of the Anatomia Vivorum 
Ricardus Salernitanus and Ricardus tec 


Tabular Summary 

Bibliography 

Revised Latin text of Anatomia Cophonis 
Translation of Anatomia Cophoms 

Translation of Second Salernitan Demonstration 
Translation of Anatomia Magistri Nicolai 
Translation of excerpts from Anatomia Vivorum 


Index 


ig 
ey 
os 


111 





ANATOMICAL TEXTS OF THE EARLIER 
MIDDLE AGES 


By 


GEORGE W. CorRNER, M. D. 


Professor of Anatomy in the University of Rochester 











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INTRODUCTION 


It was a very significant conjunction of events by which the passage of 
Arabic science into Latin began in the very decades when the Norman 
domination of all western Europe was completed. The first of our 
anatomical treatises dates from about 1070-1100, within a few years of 
the battle of Hastings and of Robert Guiscard’s victories in the Campagna. 
The period of these books is also roughly coincident with the Crusades. 
Between the first and the last of them many of the older European uni- 
versities were founded, and hospitals for the sick were established in large 
towns. The Norman walls of St. Bartholomew the Great in Smithfield, 
built in part while “Anatomia Cophonis” was being compiled, still over- 
look Bart’s Hospital, whose earliest medical attendants perhaps learned 
anatomy from such manuscripts. At Chartres, similar manuscripts from 
the old cloister school (one of which we are to examine in detail) are still 
to be found preserved under the shadow of twelfth-century spires. At 
such a place the historian of anatomy or of any other ancient science feels 
no need to excuse his interest in the special writings of the time, when 
everything about him proclaims the unity and the continuity of mediaeval 
thought, and he sees in the books, in the towers, in the glowing windows 
of the cathedral the twelfth-century artist, philosopher, and physician, 
each in his own field, progressing from the simpler traditions of the East 
to the complex, overwrought, aspiring, and magnificent patterns of 
mediaevalism. 


Tue Dark Aces; THE LEGEND oF SALERNUM 


The history of the medical school at Salernum, through which Euro- 
pean medicine was awakened after the Dark Ages, has been repeated 
over and over until it becomes difficult to separate the bare facts from the 
several kinds of conjecture which incrust them. There is a legendary 
Salernum, said to have been founded by four masters, a Greek, a Jew, a 
Saracen, and an Italian, where something of the pure Greek tradition 
had survived, in some unaccountable way, the turmoil of 800 years. In 
this ‘Civitas Hippocratica”’ we are told that there was a classical freedom 
of study and practice, a liberality so great as to permit the existence of 
women professors, an approach to the problems of disease, and a sim- 
plicity of therapeusis not unworthy of the Coan fathers. This legend has 
persisted with such vigor that medical historians, even in recent years, 
have been led to neglect as unimportant the Dark Ages and the dark 
regions among which Salernum alone is thought to have possessed the 
light of antiquity. Soberer modern history begins by admitting that we 
do not fully understand the reasons which made this town on the Gulf of 
Paestum, at some time before the twelfth century, the earliest center of 

9 


10 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


medicine in reviving Europe. Disregarding the legend, and going directly 
to the available records, it is now clear that the School of Salernum was 
not a miraculous relic of ancient Greece, but a new structure upon a foun- 
dation slowly laid down toward the end of the Dark Ages, with the aid 
of influences from across the Mediterranean. 

The south of Italy after the fall of the Gothic power was a sort of 
outpost of Byzantium, in which the common speech was a corrupted 
Greek ; but, as pointed out by Singer and Singer (1923) in their thought- 
ful essay toward a reconstruction of Salernitan origins, this tongue of the 
common people was not at first concerned in the reestablishment of 
science. There were three other more important cultural influences at 
work, however. First must be mentioned the monasteries, chiefly or 
entirely Benedictine, in which monkish Latin was spoken and read. More- 
over, there were strong Jewish communities all over southern Italy, whose 
fortunes and misfortunes have been preserved in the chronicles of Jewish 
writers from the year 850 down. Finally, a series of Saracen raids and 
invasions of Sicily and the mainland, in the eighth and ninth centuries, 
led to the introduction of Saracenic colonies in southern Italy at a time 
long antedating the definite establishment of Salernum as a medical 
center. Perhaps (as Singer and Singer have suggested) it is these four 
linguistic elements which are symbolized by the Four Masters of Saler- 
num. In their mingling by trade and warfare a basis was laid down for 
the later entrance of Oriental learning into Christian Europe; but in the 
period before the year 1050 all the evidence we have indicates that learn- 
ing in general, and medicine in particular, was centered in the Benedictine 
monasteries. In these establishments, from the eighth to the fourteenth 
centuries, there was a large amount of writing done in Latin in a peculiar 
script, known as Beneventan, from the central Benedictine house at 
Benevento. About 600 manuscripts have survived to the present time, 
some of them still at the monasteries of Benevento, Monte Cassino, and 
Salernum. Among them are 14 medical works. This handful of works 
(studied by Singer and Singer, 1923), together with a few titles listed by 
Sudhoff (1922) from Chartres and elsewhere, a few Latin antidotaries 
and similar literature, a few in Anglo-Saxon and Welsh, and some Irish 
charms and magical texts, are all we have to inform us what sort of 
medical literature was current during the later Dark Ages. The more 
strictly medical books of the period consist entirely of translations, para- 
phrases, or extracts from older Greek works; the Latin transcriptions 
are often very corrupt and the copying often ignorant. The Greek works 
represented are certain pseudo-Hippocratic writings and books attributed 
to Dioscorides, Oribasius, Paulus of Aegina, Soranus, and other well- 
known medical writers of antiquity. The internal evidence indicates that 
the Latin texts had been put together as far back as the sixth century, 


Introduction 11 


and that the monastic scribes had no Greek originals to guide them as 
they passed on the always more and more corrupt Latin versions. 

Turning to the subject of our special interest, it may be said that, as 
far as the evidence goes, anatomy did not exist. No anatomical work 
of Hippocrates, Aristotle, Galen, or the lesser classical biologists is 
known to have been in use in Europe before the twelfth century. Singer’s 
researches have disclosed nothing but one little confused anatomical text 
in Latin, among the relics in the Beneventan handwriting (as yet unpub- 
lished), and a few mystical accounts of man’s body as a microcosm, 
composed for religious purposes, such as that of St. Hildegarde of 
Bingen. Nor has any anatomical text been traced to Chartres, to Ireland, 
or other of the known centers of learning in the Dark Ages. The vast 
anatomical learning of Galen had vanished from Europe and even from 
the land that knew his labors. 


SALERNUM BEFORE CONSTANTINE 


This period of twilight in medical literature, and of continued darkness 
as far as anatomy is concerned, ends suddenly with the entrance of 
Constantine the African, about the year 1070. What there was at 
Salernum before Constantine arrived with his Arabic learning to begin 
the renaissance of European medicine, we hardly know. The famous 
Codex of Breslau contains a few small works (listed by Sudhoff, 1922) 
which seem to have a late Greek origin, and there are two books of 
medical import known to have been in use in Southern Italy about the 
years 1000-1050, though not definitely associated with Salernum itself. 
These are the “Practica Petroncelli’”’ and a book on materia medica 
known as Diascorides Lombardicus, in distinction from the greater 
Diascorides whose name had been borrowed by its compiler. There is 
a third early work, the ‘‘Passionarius Galeni,”’ whose author, one Gario- 
pontus or Warimpot, is now in fact traced to early Salernum. Thus 
the men, whoever they were, who were practicing and teaching medicine 
at Salernum before 1070 had neither more nor less in the way of books 
than the men who had been writing in the Beneventan hand during the 
past two or three centuries, namely, a handful of corrupt compilations 
from long-lost Graeco-Roman originals. 

Following Sudhoff, it has been customary to distinguish three periods 
of the Salernitan literature, namely, Early Salernitan, Middle or High 
Salernitan, and Late Salernitan. The “Middle period” begins with the 
work of Constantine. Before his time, as it seems to the present writer, 
there is no real proof that theoretical medicine was developed further at 
this town than elsewhere. Perhaps the place was frequented by patients, 
like a spa, or had some traditional reputation for healing. There is 
indeed a tale, quoted by Sudhoff (1922) from the ‘“Historiae” of Richer 
of Rheims, which seems to show that Salernitan doctors, or one of them 


12 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


at least, enjoyed a special reputation at the court of France as early as 
the year 900. Beyond this all is still legendary. The early Salernitan 
period was almost undoubtedly merely a continuation of the Lombard 
culture. We must abandon altogether the poetical view of this place as 
a last outpost of the true Hippocratic learning. Nothing remained here, 
any more than elsewhere in Europe, of undiluted antique medicine. The 
important thing that happened at Salernum, to set it off from the rest 
of Italy and to make its medical school preeminent in the grand awak- 
ening of Europe, was the introduction of Oriental learning at the end 
of the eleventh century. 


CoONSTANTINE THE AFRICAN 


There is a legendary Constantine as well as a legendary Salernum. 
Our knowiedge of the life of the great translator comes from two sources, 
on one hand a biographical account by his follower, Peter the Deacon 
(Librarian of Monte Cassino in the early twelfth century), and on the 
other hand a few contemporary notices and records, together with the 
internal evidence of the books which are associated with his name. Peter 
the Deacon tells us (the tale is pleasantly translated by Singer and Singer, 
1923) that his master was born in Carthage and wandered throughout 
the Orient, in India, Babylon, Ethiopia, and Egypt. Spending nine and 
thirty years in study among these peoples and learning their languages, 
he returned to Carthage, but found himself too wise for the comfort of 
his townspeople, who feared him as a sorcerer and forced his departure. 
Arriving at Salernum in disguise, he was recognized and bidden to the 
court of Duke Robert Guiscard. In later life he became a monk at Monte 
Cassino, and here began to make use of his vast linguistic resources by 
translating a multitude of books into Latin suitable for the use of monas- 
tic scholars. In this task a pupil, Atto, took part by copying out ‘‘in 
elegant Latin” the texts which Constantine had drafted. There is also 
a vague legend that Constantine taught in person as a lay professor at 
Salernum before he became a Benedictine at Monte Cassino. 

Disregarding the Deacon’s tale and other stories, the bare and proven 
facts are very few. In the first place, we have a group of twelve or 
fifteen medical books, both in old manuscripts and in print, which have 
been associated for 800 years with the name of Constantinus Africanus. 
One of these books, the most important as it happens, for our present 
study, namely, the ‘““Pantegni,”’ opens with a paragraph in which ‘“Con- 
stantine the African, monk of Monte Cassino” dedicates the book to 
Desiderius, abbot of that house, who became Pope under the title of 
Victor III for a half year in 1086-87. From the characteristics of 
the manuscripts and of those of other authors which contain excerpts 
from them, we know again that the Constantinian books were first 
written not earlier than about 1070. The man who prepared these trans- 


Introduction 13 


lations knew Arabic and Latin and perhaps something of Greek. One 
or two men in the earlier decades of the twelfth century called them- 
selves pupils of Constantine the African. This is all we know for certain; 
perhaps there is one more item of information in the recent discovery 
(Garufi, 1922; Capparoni, 1923) of a register of the confraternities 
of Salernum, in which the name Constantine is twice entered in the late 
eleventh century, once as Constantinus clericus and once as Constantinus 
subdiaconus. If this be Constantine the translator, he was already in 
orders before retiring from Salernum to Monte Cassino. Sudhoff (1922) 
points out that Constantine could have found in Sicily all the language 
and all the Arabic books needed for his work, and by putting together 
a few hints, suggests that Constantine had come up from Sicily with 
the army of Robert Guiscard, to whom the city of Salernum fell in 1077. 
This explanation of his career is at least more plausible than that of Peter 
the Deacon. 

The books, although they mostly bear no other name than Constan- 
tine’s, are all translations of various medical texts of Greek, Graeco- 
Roman, and Arabic origin, which were in active circulation in the Arabic 
tongue. We have at present a fairly clear knowledge of these books and 
their sources, thanks to the lifelong studies of Steinschneider (1866, 
1905). The most important of them are the Aphorisms of Hippocrates, 
with Galen’s commentary, from an Arabic version perhaps of Honein; 
de Locis Affectis (or de Interiortbus Membris) from the Arabic version 
of Hobeisch; the Microtechne and Megatechne, with lesser Galenic and 
pseudo-Galenic works; the Prognostics and de Regimine Acutorum ot 
Hippocrates; the Dietetics, the Elements, the Fevers, and the Urines, of 
Isaac the Jew; the de Gradibus of al-Djazzar; and the Pantegni, a trans- 
lation of the al-Maleki of Ali Ibn al-Abbas (Haly Abbas). 

The books translated from Isaac Judaeus were apparently ascribed 
from the first to their actual author, who was a Jewish physician in North 
Africa (d. 923); but all the others were put forward as Constantine’s 
own, or at least without ascription of other authorship. As a result, 
almost the whole group of Constantinian translations were ascribed by 
some to Isaac Judaeus, while on the other hand the fact that they were 
all from Arabic original texts was from time to time forgotten, so that 
since their appearance there has been almost constant confusion and 
disagreement as to their source and authorship. Constantine has been 
accused of plagiarizing the Pantegni from Isaac the Jew (who must 
have died in fact before the original was compiled), and of various 
other plagiarisms; on the other hand, the post-Constantinian Salernitans 
seem to have considered him the actual author of the Pantegni. His 
Latin style has always been railed at as barbarous, though one might 
expect a little mercy to be shown a scholar who was for practical ends 
putting an immense technical literature into a language unused by science 


14 ._Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


for centuries past. Now that Steinschneider has traced the sources of 
Constantine’s translations and made clear the relations between the 
writings of Constantine and Isaac, as described above, the moral issue 
as to plagiarism may well be dropped for want of evidence and of a fair 
standard for judging the actions of a past age. Equally futile would be 
a similar discussion in China of the year 3000 a. p., regarding the almost 
legendary persons who translated Gray’s Anatomy and Osler’s Practice 
into Chinese about the years 1915 to 1920. 

At present the studies of Steinschneider, Sudhoff, and their pupils tend 
more and more to convince us that Constantine the African must be held 
among the founders of modern medicine and indeed of all modern 
biology. He gave the West, as Sudhoff puts it, a great mass of impor- 
tant classical learning, in readable Latin, at a time when everything was 
ripe for growth. For a hundred years all western medical science grew 
out of these books, and when the thirteenth century brought new trans- 
lators who were able to comprehend and to translate Aristotle and 
Avicenna, their seed fell upon ground plowed by Constantine. 


MANUSCRIPTS AND PRINTED EDITIONS OF CONSTANTINE 


Under the confusion already spoken of, some of the manuscripts 
(which are fairly numerous) bear ascriptions to Constantine and others 
to Isaac. Practically all the books were printed together at Lyons in 
1515 as “Opera Ysaac,”’ and again but less completely at Basel in 1536— 
1539 in two volumes under the title “Opera Constantini Africani.” It 
appears to have been common in Salernitan times to bind together Con- 
stantine’s version of Galen’s commentary on the Aphorisms of Hippoc- 
rates with the little ancient books of Philaretus and Theophilus, and 
various other small texts, for use as a hand-book; this collection survived 
until printing began and went through many editions under the name 
of “Articella” (1.e., “abridged practice of medicine’). Although this 
book, as printed for instance at Venice in 1523, ultimately contained post- 
Salernitan writings, such as a later version of the Aphorisms, it is essen- 
tially representative of Constantinian Salernum, and will serve as a 
source of information when we come to see where the Salernitan anato- 
mists got their quotations from Hippocrates. The bibliographic history 
of the Articella is discussed by Toply (1898). 


THE PANTEGNI: ALI ABBAS 


The Pantegmi, which in Constantine’s version was to be so great an 
influence at Salernum, was composed in the later tenth century by Ali 
ibn al-Abbas, a Persian who is said to have been a court physician at 
Bagdad, dying in 994. The book is a complete system of medical theory 
and practice, attempting to summarize the whole of classical medicine 
as understood by the Moslems. Something of the sort had been attempted 


Introduction 15 


a half century before, in the Khitaab al-Mansuri of Rhazes, and a greater 
was to be written a generation later by Avicenna. As we shall see, all 
three of these Arabic encyclopaedias were to furnish material for mediae- 
val anatomy, but the work of Ali Abbas was to be (through Constantine’s 
translation) the first to reach Europe. 

The word “Pantegni’” is Constantine’s apt Greek title signifying “the 
whole art,” in allusion to Galen’s Mikrotechne and Megatechne. The 
Arabic title of the book is al-Maleki, “the royal book,” rendered later 
by Stephen of Antioch as Regalis dispositio. Its documentary history 
may be outlined briefly. Manuscripts in Arabic exist, but have not been 
collated by modern scholars. According to Sudhoff, the work was 
printed in Arabic in Egypt in 1877. In the Middle Ages it was twice 
translated into Latin, once by Constantine and again by Stephen of 
Antioch. The Constantinian version was printed in full in the 1515 
Opera Ysaac and in part (the Pars Theorica) in the 1539 Basel Opera 
Constantim. Stephen’s more refined translation appeared in print in 
1492 at Venice and at Lyons in 1523. Pagel (1906) has transcribed 
the ninth book of the Pars Practica (on surgery) from a Berlin Latin 
manuscript, and de Koning (1903) has given us an invaluable French 
version of the anatomical portions of Ali Abbas, together with those 
of Rhazes and Avicenna. 

The work is divided into two parts, the Theorica and the Practica, 
each of ten books. Some idea of the contents may be gained from the 
following headings of the books of the Pars Practica: 


Book 1. Elements, complexions in general. Elements and complexions of parts of the 
body. Mutations of the complexions according to region, age, custom, 
humors. 

2. Anatomy. The bones, cartilages, nerves, ligaments, veins, arteries, fat, mem- 
branes, skin, hair, nails. 

. Muscles, the brain, eyes, throat, and internal organs in order. 

. The “powers,” i.e., sensation and motion. 

. Air and its mutations, foodstuffs, medicinal plants and substances, clothing, 

sleep, sexual activities. 

. Accidents, i. e., death and abnormalities, both anatomical and pathological. 

. The pulse; urine, and other excretions in health and disease. 

. On diseases of febrile and infectious type. 

. Local diseases. 

. Symptoms, crises, prognostics. 


ont f& 


pad 
SOWOONO 


The two books on anatomy (Books II and III), as they appear in 
Constantine’s version, form a systematic description.of the tissues and 
organs of the body, dependent of course on the Galenic tradition, and 
without any evidence of actual observation of the animal body or of 
experiment. The book is couched in a tone of deep reverence, with 
frequent expressions of gratitude to the Creator. In this respect the 
Oriental writers found an acceptable example in their great master, 
Galen. Since space forbids the printing of specimens of the Pantegni 


16 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


in English in this place, the reader who wishes to see for himself what 
it is like may be referred, in case the Latin editions are not accessible, to 
de Koning’s French translation from the original Arabic. 

At this point we may discuss a question brought up by various hints 
in the literature that Constantine was not an accurate translator of his 
Arabic originals. An authoritative solution of this question would of 
course require acquaintance with Arabic; lacking this, the writer has 
made shift to answer it, as far as the anatomical books are concerned, by 
comparing at some length the 1515 and 1539 editions of the Pantegm 
(which are identical) with de Koning’s French translation of al-Maleki 
directly from the Arabic. The comparison indicates that Constantine’s 
version contains all the original matter in a fairly literal translation. It 
must be admitted that the translator probably did not always comprehend 
the original, that he was often forced to take over an Arabic word for 
want of a Latin term, that he achieves a naiveté which exceeds the 
original; but on the whole he put the Salernitans in possession of a 
fairly comprehensible and complete rendering of the anatomical portions 
of Ali Abbas. 


THE LITERATURE OF SALERNUM; Our MATERIALS FoR Its STupy 


After the advent of the Constantinian translations, the School of 
Salernum saw the appearance of a great amount of medical writing, 
among which we find as the subject of our present interest five treatises 
on anatomy. In order to set forth clearly the history of the anatomical 
books, it becomes necessary to discuss briefly at this point the general 
nature of the Salernitan writings and our present materials for their 
investigation. 

Modern study of the field begins with the discovery by Henschel 
(Janus, 1, 1846), in 1837, at Breslau, of a quarto parchment manuscript 
of 225 leaves, written in a twelfth-century hand, containing 35 medical 
treatises. Recent reexamination of the book by Sudhoff (1920) indi- 
cates that it was actually written in Salernum about 1160-1170 as the 
private reference-book of a physician. Parts of the contents were pub- 
lished soon after its discovery by Henschel and his pupils, and other 
portions have since been transcribed and printed by De Renzi and by 
various students of Sudhoff (Hartmann, 1919, for bibliography), so 
that most of the Breslau Codex can now be found in print. 

In 1852-1859, Salvatore De Renzi published his Collectio Salernitana, 
in five volumes, in which he gathered a great mass of Salernitan writings, 
in part from the Breslau manuscript, but also from various other sources 
in manuscript and in print. To these specimens of the Salernitan litera- 
ture, De Renzi added extensive notes and chronologies dealing with the 
books and their known or supposed authors. Since De Renzi we have 


Introduction 17 


had further additions to the mass of Salernitan literature through the 
works of Giacosa (1901) and numerous others who have found manu- 
scripts which could be proved or conjectured to be Salernitan. At the 
present time we know of more than 100 medical texts (including Con- 
stantine’s translations) which are attributed to 30 or 40 authors. These 
books, which range in length from a few paragraphs to scores of 
chapters, deal with anatomy, pathology, semeiotics, therapy, surgery, 
gynecology, and ophthalmology. 

Study of the Salernitan writings brings up at once a number of ques- 
tions as to where and when each was written, the nature of its sources, 
the name of its author; but the books themselves do not always yield the 
desired information. Copied by hand from decade to decade, often by 
scribes who did not have the faintest understanding of their contents (see 
below, page 20), the texts became corrupt. The names of the original 
authors or compilers, if recorded at all, were lost by error, by omission, 
or by substitution of another name. There was a tendency to ascribe 
any or every medical book to Galen or some other great writer. Many 
a mediaeval medical text bears at its head Liber Galient, when in the 
contents another author is plainly named, The three known manuscripts 
of the Anatomia Vivorum, for instance, are headed respectively by the 
names of Galen, of Aristotle, and of Ricardus Anglicus. When after 
1490 some of the Salernitan texts were printed, the confusion of author- 
ship was even more firmly perpetuated. 

Unfortunately, the precautions against error, which are suggested by 
what has been said, have not always been observed by writers on the 
history of Salernum. De Renzi himself, to whose energy and erudition 
we Owe so much, often accepted without question the baseless assertions 
of authorship found in the manuscripts, and even allowed himself to 
found new conjectures upon them. His collection contains, on the other 
hand, some material that is probably not Salernitan. As a result, the 
names and dates of the Salernitan doctors, as they are passed along in 
modern writing of the uncritical school, are quite untrustworthy, and the 
history of Salernum is surrounded with all sorts of fictions, of which 
the legend of the two Cophos is an example. The subject is badly in 
need of an authoritative critical analysis, for which new information 
yearly accumulates, chiefly through the admirable work of Sudhoff and 
his pupils. There is a recent summary of the literature by Hartmann 
(1919), to which the present writer gives assent all the more readily 
from having arrived by independent research at similar conclusions 
regarding a small part of the field so largely covered by the Leipzig 
school. By cautious analysis of all available manuscript material, and 
by the use of such newly discovered documents as the Liber Confratrum 
and the Obituary of Salernum Cathedral (Garufi, 1922; Capparoni, 


18 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


1923) we may hope to clear away the fables and learn the solid truth 
about Salernum. Meanwhile, we may properly demand of all who 
venture to write about medicine in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, 
that by toiling over the original sources and by familiarity with: the 
manuscripts they learn the difficulties and the pitfalls of their subject. 
In such a spirit of humility I turn to the special problem of our inquiry. 


CO Oy ———— 
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ea 
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Fic. 1—Portrait of Constantinus Africanus, from initial letter in MS. 
Bodley 489, fol. 2, verso (a manuscript of the Viaticum, written 
in the second half of the twelfth century, probably of Italian 
origin). 1.4. From Dr. Charles Singer, by courtesy of the 
Bodleian Library, Oxford. 








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magna fubg-7nona magna onnet.g arha de 


A page of the earliest known manuscript of the Anatomia Cophonis, Munich. 
Hofbibliothek, Codex Monachensis lat. 4622, fol. 38, recto. Actual size. 


TWELFTH-CENTURY TEXTS 
DEMONSTRATIONS OF ANATOMY 


First SALERNITAN ANATOMICAL DEMONSTRATION (ANATOMIA COPHONIS, 
ANATOMIA ParvA GALENT) 

The text which goes by the name of the Anatomy of Copho was first 
printed in the early sixteenth century from manuscripts which can not 
now be identified. The first known printed edition (called to the writer’s 
attention by Dr. Charles Singer) is included in a small book containing 
a number of medical works by various authors and bearing the title 
Divi Mesue Vita, printed at Lyons in 1531. In this book the Anatomia 
is appended without separate title or even a break in the page, to the end 
of the work De modo medendi, which is ascribed here, as usual later, 
to Copho. It was again printed in exactly the same way several times 
before 1550 in various editions of Mesue (Erchenbrecher, 1919). 
Haller, in his Bibliotheca Anatomica (1774-1777) refers to a Venetian 
edition of 1502, which I have not been able to find. In 1537 the text 
was included in the Anatomia of Dryander, who now for the first time 
placed the name of Copho at its head, with a preface in which Copho is 
called the “most famous anatomist of his century.”’ The last printing 
of this text as a useful document is found in the Zootomia Democritea 
(1645), Severino’s compendium of comparative anatomy. Meanwhile, 
an almost identical version (with two more sections, on the brain and 
the uterus) had crept into the earliest complete editions of Galen; it 
_acquired the title of Anatomia parva Galen, and took its place among 
the Galenic apocrypha in the Venice Galen of 1541, the Basel (Froeben) 
of 1542, the Giunta of 1576, and others. 

When De Renzi was making his great collection he was unable to find 
any manuscript of this text, and was forced to copy it from Severino. 
Recently, however, several have been discovered, in forms more or less 
allied to the printed version. Most curious among these is a manuscript 
of the thirteenth century, found by Schwarz (1907) in the Wurzburg 
library, which begins with the familiar words “Quoniam interiorum 
membrorum corporis humani positiones,” but which gives a much longer 
and more rambling text. Schwarz believed that he had found the actual 
original work of Copho, of which the text previously known under 
Copho’s name was a corrupted relic; but this was disproved by Redeker 
(1917), who was able to analyze Schwarz’s text into two elements, one 
the familiar Copho text and the other an unknown hypothetical text 
of somewhat later composition. Both of these Redeker actually found 
when he made a search for his hypothetical text, side by side in a twelfth- 
century manuscript in Munich (Codex Monacensis, Lat. 4622). It 

19 


20 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


appears certain that from this or a similar manuscript the aberrant 
version discovered by Schwarz was compiled. 

The original Copho text of the Munich manuscript, thus brought to 
light, is the earliest so far found; it is written in a fine, clear hand. 
Dr. Singer, who has kindly examined photographs sent me from the 
Munich library, informs me that from the paleographic character of the 
writing he puts its date at about the year 1150; it might possibly be 
somewhat earlier, but can not be as late as 1170. The hand is of a 
northern type, possibly German. The text of this manuscript is prac- 
tically identical with most of the printed versions. It seems, however, 
to have been written out by a copyist who was so unfamiliar with the 
vocabulary that he substituted in several places meaningless or inappro- 
priate words for those of the original, i. e., scistula for fistula, scotomiam 
for orthomiam, carnosus for cavernosus (referring to the lung), mecides 
for uritides, and also in one place nona for vena. On the other hand, 
this manuscript affords in a few passages a more intelligible reading than 
the other versions. 

The two sections on the brain and the uterus which conclude the text 
as it appears in the editions of Galen have been something of a mystery. 
In the first place, they are absent from the version handed down in the 
name of Copho; in the second place, we have had no manuscript authority 
for them; in the third place, they contain a passage which the sixteenth- 
century editors of Galen had to print in nonsensical Latin (i. e., “scinditur 
more gravis’), because they were unable to decipher the abbreviation in 
whatever manuscript they had. A search in the Bibliotheque Nationale 
at Paris disclosed to me two fourteenth-century manuscripts, one of 
which (Lat. 70304) contains the passage on the uterus and the other 
(Lat. 7036) contains on folios 105-106 a complete Copho text with the 
sections on uterus and brain, almost exactly like the version in the Giunta 
Galen. Moreover, the former manuscript gives an obviously correct 
reading of the phrase which baffled the old editors (see page 50, note 1). 

Since there is no printed edition of this text which is free from obscuri- 
ties or corruptions, a reconstructed text, made by free use of all the 
printed versions, together with the Munich and the Paris manuscripts, 
is presented (page 48). The result, which is offered for what it is worth, 
at least provides for the first time in 750 years a text which is completely 
intelligible and probably represents the sense of the original more closely 
than any extant version. The reconstructed text has also been made 
the basis of our English translation. 

The association of this anatomical demonstration with the name of 
Copho is entirely groundless. We have seen that it began as late as 1531 
through the printing of the Anatomia immediately after a medical text 
alleged to belong to Copho. Dryander, Severino, Haller, and De Renzi 
accepted the error without inquiry, so that it has been handed down by 


Twelfth-Century Texts oo 


all subsequent writers until Sudhoff questioned it. In the manuscripts 
the book is always called Tractatus anonymus de anatomia or Anatomia 
Galient. 

About Copho himself we have only one piece of contemporary evidence. 
In the introduction to an undoubtedly Salernitan book, De modo medendi, 
the compiler says: “Ego namque secundum hoc opus de modo medendi 
a Cofonis ore suisque et sociorum scriptis compendiose collegi.” This 
seems to have been enough to lead the editors of the earliest printed 
versions, and even De Renzi, to consider Copho the author of De modo 
medendt. Furthermore, since the book refers to certain drugs as “of 
Copho,” De Renzi assumes that there must have been two Cophos, and 
so we have a full-fledged legend about a medical family of the Cophos, 
with dates (De Renzi, vol. 5). On the other hand, Erchenbrecher 
(1919) has turned up a manuscript of De modo medendt, in which one 
Archimatthaeus names himself as the author who compiled the book 
“from the sayings and writings of Copho and his colleagues.” The name 
of Copho does not appear at all in the list of Salernitan confraternities 
nor in the Cathedral obituary (Garufi, 1922; Capparoni, 1923). Thus 
Copho is reduced to the shadowy figure of a man, who was, no doubt, 
a teacher at Salernum, but the author of no known writings, and without 
known date. 

Our study of the contents and the probable date of the text itself will 
best be postponed a few pages until we have discussed the next text. 


SECOND SALERNITAN DEMONSTRATION 


The Second Salernitan Demonstration, unlike the Anatomia Cophonis, 
became known as a historical document directly from an early manuscript 
version; discovered by Henschel in the Breslau Codex in 1846, it was 
first transcribed by his pupil, Nagel, in 1852, and again in 1853 in De 
Renzi’s Collectio Salernitana. ‘These transcriptions are unfortunately 
not very accurate, and the text is marred by a number of unintelligible 
passages. In recent years, however, Sudhoff has discovered a second 
manuscript of the work in the Erfurt Amploniana (Codex 204, fol. 
82-85) dating from the late twelfth or early thirteenth century, and his 
pupil Benedict has printed a revised text (1920) based on both the manu- 
scripts, incidentally correcting the errors of the earlier editors. Benedict’s 
text has served as the source of our translation, which, like that of the 
First Demonstration, is the first English version to be printed. 


ANALYSIS OF THE SECOND SALERNITAN DEMONSTRATION; SOURCES oF ITs 
CoNTENTS 

An examination of the Second Salernitan Demonstration shows that 

it is arranged as a public discourse or lecture to accompany a dissection 

of a pig. The work opens with a formal introduction in the scholastic 

style, in which the various organs are classified in a somewhat rigidly 


ae Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


schematic way according to their respective functions in mediating the 
three species of vital spirits. This prologue duly recited, the lecturer 
gives directions for killing the pig and arranging the carcass, and pro- 
ceeds to conduct a systematic examination of the various organs, giving 
as he comes to each region a few words of guidance to the dissector, 
then a description of the region or organ, and finally mentions one or 
more diseases or lesions which may affect the part under examination. 
During the course of the lecture the speaker several times refers to certain 
books in which he hints that his remarks will be found corroborated or 
extended. These are the Pantegmi of Constantine, the Liber Urinarius 
of Isaac the Jew, the Aphorisms of Hippocrates, and an unnamed work 
of Galen, which, as we shall see, was in fact Galen’s Commentary on the 
Aphorisms, another of Constantine’s translations. There are also three 
passages in which the anatomical lecturer refers respectively to Philaretus, 
author of a well-known work of post-classical origin, De pulsibus; to 
Johannitius,* no doubt the author of the celebrated Jsagoge (Honein), 
and to the Aphorisms of Hippocrates, using in each case terms which 
indicate that he is quoting from commentaries of his own authorship 
upon these works (e. g., “ut in Philareto diximus”’; “in glosulis apho- 
rismorum plenarie diximus’”; “prout in Johannitium diximus’’). 

A detailed examination of the text reveals the fact that the Salernitan 
anatomist has drawn the prologue and all the formally descriptive parts 
of his discourse from the Pantegmi. Some of his paragraphs are taken 
almost bodily from the original, some are greatly condensed, others 
represent a reworking of the original text, in which, however, the vocabu- 
lary and even whole phrases and sentences are those of Constantine. 
The following specimen passages in parallel will show one bit of descrip- 
tion which is copied almost literally and another which has been consider- 
ably reworked; these illustrate better than any further discussion how 
completely the Demonstration follows its source in these descriptive 
passages and in the prologue. 


* As incorrectly transcribed by De Renzi, the reference is to “Johannes,” which led 
Toply to assume that Johannes Damascenus was meant. 


Twelfth-Century Texts 23 


CoNSTANTINE 
PanrtTeEGNI, Lis. II, Cap. I 


Natura enim mirabilis de multis 


membris in quantitate et quali- 
tate diversis corpus animalis 
composuit. Ut per ea regeretur 
animalium quodlibet quod in suo 
vigore eviveret, ut expleret ad 
quod factum est naturaliter. 
Unumquodque enim animal cor- 
poris instrumenta animae, vir- 
tuti habet competentia. Quia 
leo cum sit animae audacis et 
iracundae, corpus forte habuit 
et grave. In pedibus ungues et 
in ore acutissimos dentes. Lepus 
cum sit timidissimus, corporis 
membra levitate nimia fugae 
habuit aptissima. Quia virtutes 
animae sibi erant diversae, fecit 
Deus corporis instrumenta vir- 
tutibus suis diversis competentia, 
ut pote manus in homine ut in 
eis operaretur, in quibus sunt 
digiti multi et diversi, ut per eos 
magna et minima possent retin- 
eri. Epar rubeum fecit prout 
suppetebat creando  sanguini. 
Mammillas et testiculos ad cre- 
andum lac et sperma fecit albos. 
Hoc modo omnibus suis actioni- 
bus fecit convenientia. 


Lrs. III, Car, XXI 


Cor fit de villis diverse positis, 
cuius caro tota est dura. Dyiver- 
sitas villorum ex diversitate est 
motuum, dilatandi  scilicet et 
constringendi durities carnis, ut 
velocitas auferatur passibilitatis. 
Pulmo circumdat cor lateraliter. 
Forma cordis est pinea. Inferius 


DEMONSTRATIO ANATOMICA 


Natura etenim prima et provida et 


in suis operibus mirabiliter col- 
laudanda ex multis membris vel 
quantitate et qualitate diversis 
corpus composuit animale, ut per 
ea animalium constaret regimen 
et suae vigor existeret et ad 
quae facta sunt consisteret ex- 
plementum. Nam unumquodque 
animal corporis membra animae 
et naturae habet instrumenta 
competentia. Leo namque, cum 
sit animae audacis et iracundae, 
ad utriusque perfectionem cor- 
pus habuit forte, et instrumenta 
habilissima extiterant in pedibus 
scilicet ungues et in ore acutis- 
simae dentes. Lepus vero, cum 
sit animal timidissimum, cor- 
poris membra levitate nimia 
fugae, habuit aptissima crura 
scilicet anteriora posterioribus 
curtiora ut ita ascensus fieret 
facilior. Quia quorum virtutes 
et naturae animae sibi erant 
diversae, summus opifex et 
pater universorum  virtutibus 
diversis instrumenta composuit 
singulis competentia utpote 
manus in homine, ut cum his 
operaretur. In quibus multi 
sunt digiti et diversi, ut per eos 
magna et parva possent retineri. 
Epar rubore affecit ad maioram 
sanguinis generationem. Mam- 
milis et testiculis ad lactis et 
spermatis creationem provida 
discretione praestitit albedinem. 
Sic itaque membra_ universa 
cunctis actionibus suis fecit con- 
venientia. 


Post haec inspicetis cor in eodem 


latere sinistro locatum, a pul- 
mone lateraliter circumdatum, et 
quodam panniculo undique oper- 
tum, qui dicitur casula cordis, in 
qua bene potest apostema fier, 
in corde vero numquam aut dif- 
ficile. Saepe autem in eo super- 


24 


Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


elus pars id est, latitudo, oppo- 
sita est superiori corpori. Poni- 
tur autem intra concavitates 
pectoris ambas quas mediante 
panniculo diximus esse diversa. 
Caput quod acumen dicitur in 
sinistro parte locatur. Hoc vero 
latus cordis spiritus inhabitat 
vitalis. Inde exit arteria maior, 
de qua omnes aliae egrediuntur. 
Unde fit ut pulsus in sinistra 
parte sit fortissimus. Cor duas 
habet concavitates, quorum una 
dextra, altera vero sinistra .. . 
(28 more lines follow, in which 
the internal structure of the 
heart is described in detail). 


Lis. III, Cap. XXXVI 


Virga caro est nervosa, rotunda et 


concava, ab utroque penis osse 
incipiens et utrumque nervos 
sibi oppositos extransverso 
habens. Quae duplici ex causa 
fuit necessaria. Primo, ut per 
vasa sua sperma in vulva pro- 
iciat. Unde etiam fuit nervosa, 
ut appetitum  concupiscientiae 
in tactu habeat. Concava efficit, 
ut accedente appetitu vento im- 
pleatur, unde erigatur. Ambo 
lacerti lateraliter sibi sunt op- 
positi, ut nusquam virga possit 
flecti. Unde rectum sperma in 
vulva proiciat. Secundo, quia 
cum vesica viae spermatis et sit 
vicina ac eadem via emittit 
nina. 


habundat corruptus humor, qui 
facit sincopim ut in substantia 
cordis de villis scilicet de partibus 
villosis et nervosis diverse posi- 
tis, et carne dura est composita ; 
et hoc est propter motuum 
dilationes_ scilicet et constric- 
tionis diversitatem eorundemque 
magnitudinem et velocitatem, ne 
molli substantia compositum ex 
his facile compateretur. Sed 
forma eius pineata est inferius 
lata superius acuta, concava ex 
diversis concavitatibus, ut et 
facilius fieret motus et ne in 
angulis retenta superfluitas causa 
esset molestiae. 


Virga est quasi caro nervosa et 


rotunda et concava incipiens ab 
utroque osse pectinis duobus 
nervis ex transverso sibi oppos- 
itis constans, quae duplici de 
causa fuit necessaria. Primo, ut 
per vasa sua in vulvam prohiciat 
sperma, unde fuit nervosa, ut in 
spermatis emissione et tali ac- 
tione turpissima pro nimia sensi- 
bilitate magna fieret delectatio. 
Concava fuit, ut huius actionis 
exardescente desiderio multo 
spiritu in magna concavitate et 
lacertis lateraliter positis sibi 
contento in summam extendere- 
tur et erigetur rigiditatem et non 
facile posset flecti, sed recto 
transitu sperma prohiceretur in 
vulvam. - Secundo fuit neces- 
saria, ut urinam de colo vesicae 
sibi continuo sine offendiculo in 
virgam transeuntem  recipiens 
expelleret. Ut in anatomia 
patenter ostendimus, penna per 
collum vesica immissa. 


A parallel between certain other chapters, such, for instance, as the 


highly interesting descriptions of the uterus and the formation of the 
foetus, which can not be given for want of space, would show a degree 
of selection and reworking somewhat more extensive than in the para- 
graph on the heart, but even here it is possible to find somewhere in the 
long descriptions of Constantine practically all the ideas and a large 
proportion of the actual phrases used by the Salernitan demonstrator. 


Es 








Twelfth-Century Texts 2a 


The foregoing parallel has been noticed, though briefly, by Toply 
(1898) and Redeker (1917); it accounts for a great part of our text. 
Nor have we much farther to look for the sources of the brief patho- 
logical notes which occur throughout the Demonstration. A clue is 
given by the quotation from Hippocrates (page 63): “unde in Apho- 
rismis ‘quibuscumque ex strangiria’ et alibi ‘in ano flegmonem patientem,’ 
et cetera.” This is an exact quotation from Constantine’s translation 
of the Aphorisms with Galen’s commentary (Aph. VI, 4, and V, 56) ; 
following it up, we find other quotations from the appended comments 
of Galen. Thus the passage about abscesses between the oesophagus and 
spine (page 58) closely follows Galen’s comment on Aphorism III, 
27. Other passages, though not actually quotations, are very reminiscent 
of Constantine’s translation of the Aphorisms, for instance, the classifica- 
tion of abscesses of the throat (Galen on Aph. IV, 34) and the causation 
of sneezing (page 57), which suggests Galen on Aphorism VII, 51. I 
can not trace one of the quotations from Galen (“‘per species disniae et 
tussis quaeque fiunt’’), but excepting this it is quite safe to say that all 
the lesions mentioned in the pathological notes, and the phraseology 
employed in connection with them, can be traced to this one source. 

The two references to Isaac’s Liber Urinarum are both to be found 
in the printed text of that book; it is interesting to note that the sentence 
referring to the term porta (pylorus) is an exact verbal quotation from 
Tsaac. 

The author of this work remains unknown by name, but he has left 
us a few clues by which we may hope that his name and place in Saler- 
nitan history may some day be recovered. We have noted that in this 
anatomical text he hints that he has written three other books, namely, 
commentaries on Johannitius, on Philaretus, and on the Aphorisms of 
Hippocrates. He tells us (see page 59) that in this latter work he has 
given a full description of the veins of the upper part of the body, when 
expounding the Aphorism ‘Posteriora capitis dolentia, in fronte recta 
vena incisa iuvat.’”’ There is obviously a clue here, to be traced by search- 
ing for an early twelfth-century commentary on the Aphorisms, based 
on Constantine’s translation of the Hippocratic text and containing an 


anatomical exposition of Aphorism V, 67. 


This is not the place for a disquisition on the early mediaeval glosses 
on the Aphorisms, but it may be said at least that there are numerous 
such commentaries in manuscript, which have never «been classified or 
studied. Among them may yet be found the one which is claimed by 
our second Salernitan anatomist. One only of these glosses has been 
printed, namely, one bearing the name of Magister Maurus of Salernum, 
found by Daremberg in a manuscript of Vienna University and printed 
by De Renzi in the Collectio Salernitana. A certain polemical and inde- 
pendent tone displayed in this commentary, together with its undoubted 
Salernitan style, led Sudhoff to make the interesting suggestion that in 
this samé Maurus we have the author of the Second Salernitan Demon- 


26 , Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


stration. Unfortunately, there was no possibility of testing this hypothe- 
sis by reference to the gloss on the aphorism “Posteriora capitis dolentia, 
etc.,”” because a large fragment of the text is missing, including the fifth 
book. I have myself had the good fortune to discover two complete 
manuscript texts of the same book in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris 
(MSS. Lat. 18499, 6956) of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, 
respectively, both of which contain the missing parts. One of them is 
attributed to Magister Maurus, the other to Petrus Hispanus. The gloss 
on Aphorism V, 67 (MS. Lat. 18499, fol. 106, recto et verso) reads as 
follows: 

Posteriora capitis dolentia, etc. Ponit auctor in hoc loco quandam curam 
doloris posterioris partis capitis per antipase. Aliquando enim dolor est 
infixius in posteriori parte capitis perveniens ex sanguine, tunc igitur minutio 
facienda enim de vena existente in media fronte (ut) ratione minutionis 
humor perhabundens in posteriora parte .... vena trahitur ad partem 
anteriorem et sic deficiente materia in parte posteriori qua dolor facit et dolor 
desinit nec tamen attractus humor ad partem anteriorem causa est doloris 
propter manitionem factam per minutionem. Hoc est igitur quare dicitur 
vena incisa fronte si posteriora partis dolentia iuvat. 


It will be seen that this passage does not meet the description which 
our Salernitan anatomist gives of his own gloss on Aphorism V, 67, and 
that Sudhoff’s hypothesis is thus rendered improbable. 

I have examined several other early commentaries on the Aphorisms, 
especially such as are found in company with glosses on the other texts 
on which the Second Salernitan demonstrator claims to have made com- 
ment, namely, upon Johannitius and Philaretus; but I have found no one 
of them which quite fills the specifications of our search. At Chartres 
there is a twelfth-century codex (No. 171) containing, among other 
works, anonymous glosses upon Johannitius, Philaretus, and the Apho- 
risms; in the first two there are anatomical disquisitions on the eye and 
the venous system which might very well be those to which our author 
refers; but here again the gloss on ‘“‘Posteriora capitis dolentia’”’ contains 
no anatomical discussion. Another such collection, in which the various 
commentaries are found in company with the Signa Prognostica attrib- 
uted to Ricardus Anglicus, exists at Wurzburg (M. p. med. gq. 1, 
Schwarz, 1907), but once more the gloss on “posteriora, etc.” (kindly 
transcribed for me by Professor Sticker) is not apropos. 

MS. Lat. 7027 of the Bibliotheque Nationale (Paris) contains a very 
interesting early Latin gloss on the Aphorisms which does give a kind 
of anatomical discussion of ‘“Posteriora capitis dolentia,” but the work 
is based on a translation of the Aphorisms which differs from that of 
Constantine, while its archaic style, as well as the paleographic characters 
of the manuscript, suggest that the work dates from pre-Constantinian 
times. 





Twelfth-Century Texts ai 


In summary, then, the Second Salernitan Demonstration is largely 
formed from material existing in three books of the collection translated 
by Constantine. There is nothing in it which need be considered earlier 
than these books, while on the other hand, if put together later than 
the twelfth century, we should expect it to show the influence of other 
anatomical works which came over from the Arabic by that time, such 
as Stephen of Antioch’s translation of Ali Abbas. Sudhoff’s dating of 
the Breslau Codex also gives us a terminus ad quem for the composition 
of this Demonstration, namely, the years 1160 to 1170. The evidence 
strongly points to a date of composition not far from the year 1100. 


PROBABLE DATE AND SOURCE OF THE FIRST SALERNITAN DEMONSTRATION 


The Anatomia Cophonis contains no references to other books, nor 
any obviously recognizable quotations from preceding texts, and there- 
fore its derivation is not so easily traced as that of the Second Salernitan 
Demonstration, and indeed must remain, for want of positive internal 
evidence, more or less a matter of conjecture. Toply (1898), like De 
Renzi, accepted the ascription of its authorship to Copho of Salernum, 
and thus assumed a date between 1085 and 1100, the years during which 
Copho is said by De Renzi to have flourished. Toply, however, supports 
his estimate of the general period of the work by listing its anatomical 
vocabulary, which, as he says, shows dependence upon both Greek and 
Arabic sources, and especially upon the Liber Pantegni of Constantine. 

Yet, as we have already said, the text is so much briefer and less 
detailed than the other anatomical books which we now know to have 
been abstracted from the Pantegni, and it bears, at least superficially, 
such an archaic appearance that it is not difficult to imagine for it an 
origin in pre-Constantinian times. Two of Sudhoff’s pupils, who are 
the latest to touch upon the subject, are in opposition on this point, 
Redeker (1917) speaking for a common dependence of the two Saler- 
nitan demonstrations upon the Pantegmi, Benedict (1920) ascribing to 
the Anatomia Cophonis a descent from the times of monastic medicine, 
or at least from pre-Constantinian Salernum. Benedict means no doubt 
to suggest that we have in this work a traditional work of the Dark 
Ages, which was later revised under the Arabist influence and so acquired 
a partially Arabic vocabulary and style. Sudhoff himself (1922) calls 
it pre-Constantinian. 

The terminology of Anatomia Cophonis, when analyzed, is not defi- 
nitely enlightening as to its time of origin. Here we rest largely upon 
the scholarship of Hyrtl (1880) and Fonahn (1922). A few of the 
anatomical terms appear to come directly from pre-Constantinian times. 
Longaon is in Isidor of Seville’s book of etymologies (seventh century) 
and is found also in the ninth-century text of the Glasgow Hunterian 
Library, to which reference has already been made (page 11). Con- 


28 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


stantine uses intestinum rectum in place of this term. The older word 
oesophagus is used in the Anatomia Cophonis as against the Arabic word 
meri in Constantine. Copho uses both omentum, a classical Latin word, 
and the Arabic zirbus, without any clear evidence that the writer ‘was 
aware of their equivalence. On the other hand, the text contains words 
of Latin form which are undoubtedly translations of Arabic terms, or 
which have some. other late-Latin origin, such as portanarium and (in 
the terminal section on the brain, from the Galenic collections), pia mater 
and dura mater. Stomachus is used, not to signify oesophagus, as in 
the classical Greek sense, but in the Constantinian sense of “stomach.” 
Finally, there are the three obvious Arabic words, siphac (peritoneum), 
zirbus (omentum), and vena chilis. It will be seen from this list of 
terms that the text as it stands can not be earlier than the period of the 
Arabic translations. It is either a pre-Constantinian work revised under 
the new influence, or else it is post-Constantinian, but prepared by a 
writer who was not fully a master of the new vocabulary. 

It is when we pass from a consideration of the vocabulary to that of 
the contents that we are struck by certain points of relationship to the 
Second Salernitan Demonstration. The two works not only approach 
their common task, that of conducting a public dissection of the pig, in 
a generally similar way, but they are arranged in the same order, dealing 


first with the neck, then with the chest and abdomen, then with uterus. 


and brain. They become vague and sketchy on similar subjects, as, for 


instance, the blood-vessels and the abdominal membranes. They agree - 


in totally omitting the skeleton, except the cranium. They intermingle 
in the same way anatomical, physiological, and pathological discussion. 
They mention in general the same lesions and symptoms. 

Most curious of all, the author of the Second Demonstration takes 
occasion five times to deny or correct certain statements of other anato- 
mists; and four of these statements are actually made in the Anatomia 
Cophonis. The writer of Copho speaks inaccurately of glands called 
pharynges; the other anatomist remarks “quos quidam appellant faringes, 
quibus non do assensum.” The former again says: “sub stomachum est 
intestinum quod dicitur portanarium”’; the latter says: “quorum primum 
non est portanarium, sed duodenum.” They disagree again about the 
omentum. 

All these antitheses were pointed out by De Renzi, but another which 
is more interesting still has never been noticed, having been obscured 
by an unintelligible misreading in De Renzi’s text. The author of the 
Anatomia Cophonis adds to his list of the divisions of the intestines a 
gratuitously false description of “certain intestines called lateralia, in 
which occurs iliac pain,” a description which, so far as I know, is not 
found in any other anatomical text, and which must represent a sheer 
lapse of the author’s understanding. In the Second Demonstration, 





Twelfth-Century Texts 29 


speaking of the colon, we find “‘the iliac pain caused by the retention of 
coarse refuse, and by other causes mentioned in the books, is, according 
to Constantine, located here, and not in ‘lateral intestines,’ which I have 
never discovered in animals, nor have I found anything written about 
them except in the recent booklet (in novo quaternulo).” Can the 
Anatomia Cophonis be the “recent booklet” thus attacked? The evidence 
falls short of proof, yet it is impossible to read the two texts together 
without surmising with De Renzi that the two Salernitan Demonstra- 
tions are contemporaneous, and that the second is in part a specific criti- 
cism of the first. Each is an adaptation of the newly acquired Arabic 
learning to the practical purposes of a public anatomical demonstration. 
One may conjecture for himself under what circumstances of emulation 
or rivalry they were prepared. It appears that the more inaccurate and 
less compendious author won the larger reputation, judging from the 
relative number of manuscripts and printed texts which have seen the 
light. 
ANATOMIA Mauri 


The Anatomia Mauri is a third brief text (173 lines of octavo print) 
found by Sudhoff in a twelfth-century manuscript in the Vatican Library 
(Pal. lat. 1097, fol. 122) and edited by Ploss in 1921. The work ends 
with the words “explicit liber anathomiae. Hoc opus a Mauro restat, 
pretiosius auro.” The Maurus thus mentioned is no doubt Magister 
Maurus, a teacher known to us through references of Aegidius Corbo- 
lensis, whose teacher he was at Salernum in the latter half of the twelfth 
century. Capparoni has discovered in the Salernitan necrology an 
obituary notice of ‘““Magister Maurus, optimus physicus,’’ who died on 
the 24th day of February, 1214, and of his wife Theodora at the middle 
of February 1239. The other works attributed to Maurus are the 
Regulae Urinarum (Collect. Salern., III, 2-50, and also Kadner, 1919) ; 
De Flebotomia (R. Buerschaper, 1919); and the commentary on Hip- 
pocrates’s Aphorisms which is discussed at length on pages 25, 26. 

The text is a brief discourse intended to accompany the dissection of 
a pig, in the same style as the Anatomia Cophonis and the Demonstratio 
Salernitana. Like these texts, it begins with a definition of anatomy, 
with reasons for choosing the pig as object of study and with directions 
for killing and bleeding the beast. The description of the organs is given 
in the same order; a few pathological notes are included, very similar 
to those of the other two Demonstrations; and finally, the text concludes 
with a description of the brain, cerebral membranes, and eyes. 

Although this text resembles that of the Anatomia Cophonis as against 
that of the Second Demonstration, in that it does not contain whole 
sentences and passages taken bodily from Constantine, still there is no 
doubt that the work has a purely Constantinian origin. The technical 
vocabulary is that of the Pantegnt, without evidence of later scholastic 


30 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


influence, nor is there any anatomical information in the work which 
can not be found in the same form in the Pantegmi. 

The Anatomia Mauri contains three quotations, one from Isaac and 
two from Hippocrates. The first occurs in connection with a passage 
mentioning six nerves or muscles on the under side of the tongue, whence 
“dicit Ysaak ad lingam sex lacerti veniant, quibus carent ceteri sensus.” 
The second quotes Hippocrates to the effect that disease of the throat 
is due to over-desiccation or to repletion of that region. These quotations 
I have not been able to trace to their source in the authors mentioned; 
but the third quotation gives striking testimony to the exact version of 
Hippocrates which served as the author’s reference-book. Speaking of 
tongue-tie, the author says: “unde Ypocras in aforismos ‘trauli a dyar- 
rhia maxime capiuntur longa.’”” On turning to the Articella, we find 
that the words quoted from Hippocrates are the exact words of the 
thirty-third aphorism of Book VI, in the “antiqua translatio,” i. e., 
Constantine’s translation of the Aphorisms. In the second and later 
version of the Aphorisms given in the Articella, the wording of this 
aphorism is quite different. 

SUMMARY 


The three Demonstrations, as we have seen, were composed during 
the twelfth century, probably before 1150, as the practical manuals of 
teachers and students whose only written anatomical authority was the 
Pantegm of Constantine. In one respect, however, they were not depend- 
ent upon their source; that is to say, in practical sense, in polemic vigor, 
and ardor for truth. If we do not find the Salernitan anatomists improv- 
ing upon the science of their predecessors, we may at least respect them 
as careful and exacting schoolmasters. The three little books taken 
together give us a lively picture indeed of these men engaged in actual 
dissection of the animal body, surrounded by questioning pupils for 
whose benefit they try to fit their newly recovered relics of Galenic 
description to the pig’s organs before them; now dogmatic, now puzzled; 
careful in demonstration, resentful of criticism; in short, living men, 
teaching from the specimen and not from books alone—an unexpected 
thing in mediaeval anatomy, not to be seen again until the days of 
Mundinus. 


SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMIES 
ANATOMIA RICARDI (SALERNITANI) AND ANATOMIA Macistr1 NICOLAI 


European libraries contain many examples, in handwriting of the 
thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, of a text beginning with 
a very obvious remark in some such words as these: ‘Galieno testante 
in Tegni quiscumque interiorum membrorum corporis humani disposi- 
tionem scire desiderat, ipsum in anatomia exercitatum esse oportet.” 
One such text was first noticed by Daremberg and Haeser and was 


a 


Twelfth-Century Texts 31 


printed as the Anatomia Ricardi by Florian from Haeser’s transcription 
in 1875 and again from the same manuscript in 1898, by Tarrasch. 
Both these transcriptions contained numerous inaccuracies. In 1907 
Schwarz printed a correct text of Anatomia Ricardi from a Wirzburg 
manuscript which he had collated with the Berlin manuscript and with 
several others. Finally, Redeker (1917) has brought forward, from a 
manuscript in the British Museum, a text differing from the foregoing 
but closely related to it, under the name of Magister Nicolaus. This is 
the text we present in English translation. Redeker’s admirable disser- 
tation goes so fully into the whole history of these Ricardus texts that 
in our present discussion we can do little but acknowledge the correctness 
of his results from personal study of most of the same material. 

The most important of the manuscripts so far known (many others 
exist) are as follows, in approximate order of age: 


Oxford. Bodleian, Codex 8847 (thirteenth century, first half). Anatomia. 
“Galienus in tegni testatur. . . . Unde tantum masculos vel 
feminas generant. Explicit anatomia.” (Redeker, 1917.) 

Wurzburg. K. Universitats-Bibliothek. “Hic incipit Anatomia Galieni. 
(m. p. med. q. 1. saec. XIII). Galienus testatur in tegni .. . vel 
tantum masculos vel tantum feminas generant. (Schwarz, 1907.) 

Erfurt. Amploniana, fol. 288 u. 4° (thirteenth century). Anatomia Ricardi. 
(Schwarz, 1907.) 

Erfurt. Amploniana, q. 15 (nr.2a) fragment. Anatomiae cuiusdam Alani 
haud rectae attributae, potius Galieno attribuenda pars. (Schwarz, 
1907.) 

Paris. Bibliothéque Nationale. Anc. Fonds. lat. 7056 (thirteenth century). 
“Tncipiuntur opera magistri Ric. Ricardi Anglici incipit anatomia. 
Galieno testante in tegno quiscumque ifteriorum membrorum .. . 
omnium membrorum habent commune. Sic nil omissum de membris 
praeterit hec artis. Explicit Anatomia M. Ri.” 

Vienna. Hofbibliothek, nr. 2325, dated 1280 a.p. (Schwarz, 1907.) 

Vienna. Hofbibliothek, nr. 4153, dated 1314 a.p. (Schwarz, 1907). 

Berlin. Kaiserliche Bibliothek, fol. 219 (fourteenth century). Anatomia 
Richardi. ‘“Galienus in tegno atttestatur ... vel masculos vel 
tantum feminas generant.” (Florian, 1875; Tarrasch, 1898.) 

Naples. Bibliotheca Nazionale, Codex I-VIII-D. 53 (fourteenth century). 
Anatomia Alberti. “Galienus testatur in tegni quod quicunqui.. . 
tantum generant masculos vel tantum feminas, prout virga virilis 
torquetur ad illam partem. Explicit Anatomia Alberti; id est 
divisio omnium membrorum.” (Redeker, 1917.) 


VARIANTS r 


London. British Museum, Additional Manuscript 24069 (beginning of thir- 
teenth century). Anatomia Magistri Nicolai physici. ‘“‘Sicut testa- 
tur Galienus, Si quis dispositionem membrorum intrinsecorum et 
extrinsecorum .. . et soliditatem matricis non defacili accenduntur, 
sed accensae tarde relinquunt.” (Redeker, 1917.) 

Oxford. Bodleian, Codex Ashmole 1398 (thirteenth century). Anatomia 
Ricardi. “Gallieno attestante in tegni ... et inde nutrimentum 
omnium membrorum habent commune.” (Redeker, 1917.) 


Ay Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


CONTENTS AND SOURCES 


As will be seen from the translation, the work differs widely from 
those previously discussed. It is in the first place a systematic descriptive 
anatomy, dealing with all parts of the body in logical sequence rather 
than in an order dictated by convenience of dissection. It purports to 
describe the human body, rather than the pig. Moreover, the subject- 
matter is handled in a highly organized style, much space being devoted 
to definition, classification, and arrangement of the material. The whole 
tone of the book suggests the philosophical method of scholasticism, 
though in the Ricardus and Nicolaus texts this style is not so far devel- 
oped as in later works, say of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. 

The Anatomia Nicola is longer and more complete than the Anatomia 
Ricardi, but the latter is not simply an abridgment of Nicolaus, for it 
contains numerous passages of different wording. Redeker, after a 
lengthy comparison of both these texts and of the variants found in such 
manuscripts as that of the Ashmolean collection, has been unable to trace 
a definite sequence of the various texts, nor has he found any common 
source from which all the rest might have been compiled, and therefore 
he falls back upon the not improbable hypothesis that the texts as we 
have them were prepared by the writing down of lectures from oral 
delivery. The text of Nicolaus is probably nearer to the hypothetical 
original than the others, which presumably introduce the sort of errors, 
omissions, and variations characteristic of inaccurate reporting. 

An examination of the texts shows that they are derived from Con- 
stantine’s Pantegni, as was first pointed out by Toply in his Studien 
(1898). The vocabulary is unmistakable, and the order of arrangement 
of the descriptions closely follows Constantine. However, I do not find 
whole passages or even sentences taken from Constantine, as in the 
Second Salernitan Demonstration; rather, the text is compiled and con- 
densed from the Pantegni, and made more classificatory and more sys- 
tematic. It tends to list rather than to describe the structures. 

I agree with Redeker that there is no suggestion of Stephen of 

@ Antioch’s translation of Ali Abbas in these early mediaeval texts; nor do 
I see evidence of influence from the Latin versions of Rhazes and 
Avicenna, which were made late in the twelfth century. The authors 
quoted in Nicolaus are the Pantegm; the Prognostics, Aphorisms, and 
Airs, Waters, and Places of Hippocrates; the Book of Urines and the 
Diets of Isaac; Galen’s Tegni, and Theophilus. There are also two 
quotations from Aristotle, one via Isaac and one purporting to be direct. 
In Ricardus, but not in Nicolaus, the Vzaticum is also quoted, and in the 
Ashmolean manuscript the Isagoge of Johannitius. With the exception 
of the one direct quotation from Aristotle (which perhaps is after all 
from some intermediate source) and perhaps the Airs, Waters, and 
Places, all of these books are found among the Constantinian transla- 
tions or are known to have existed in early Salernum. 


Twelfth-Century Texts 7 33 


PROBABLE DATE 


From the paleographic characteristics of the manuscripts we know 
that these existed in the earlier part of the thirteenth century. Further- 
more, since, as Ferckel (1913) has shown, there are numerous quotations 
from Ricardus in the Speculum Naturale of Vincent of Beauvais, we 
may be certain that these anatomical texts were prepared between the 
Pantegmi, about 1080, and the Speculum Naturale about 1250. Finally, 
their dependence upon Constantine and their freedom from later influ- 
ences strongly suggest an origin in the twelfth century, and even hint 
that they belong to the Salernitan School in place as well as in time of 
origin. As to their authors we know nothing. Magister Nicolaus can 
not be identified with any physician of that name, while the association 
of the name of Ricardus with one of these texts rests upon very slight 
grounds to be discussed below (page 41). 


SCHOLASTICISM IN MEDIAEVAL ANATOMY 


Readers who have followed the older work on the Anatomia Ricardi 
(Salernitani) will notice that the preceding dating of this book is in 
disagreement with Florian and Tarrasch and with Pagel (Handbuch, 
Bd. 1, S. 703), all of whom placed the book in the “scholastic period,” 
by which they mean the fourteenth century. Such a disagreement reflects 
a confusion of thought which (as one knows from experience) is com- 
mon and misleading, and justifies us in a brief digression on the subject 
of scholasticism in mediaeval medicine. Here again acknowledgment 
must be made to the dissertation of Redeker, who has put the explanation 
in very clear terms. Combining Redeker’s reflections with our own, we 
may begin with a definition of scholasticism, which is (to borrow from 
Archbishop Keane) : 

“A method, a style, a manner of handling certain truths, which contrasts 
strongly with their treatment in times previous or posterior to the period m 
which scholasticism flourished. This method is highly technical, didactic, 
analytic, implying a severe and exact use of the reasoning faculties. It is 
strictly syllogistic, and tends to present the doctrines of . . . philosophy in 
a complete methodical system, in which an even balance and a due proportion 
shall everywhere be observed. ... It has been made a reproach to the 
scholastic period that it examined with excessive subtlety, and was marked by 
an arid formalism, infinite prolixity of treatment, barbarous technology, etc.” 


Such a method of treating the questions of religious philosophy and 
metaphysics reached its apogee in the fourteenth century as a result of 
the spread of Aristotelian philosophy following the great period of trans- 
lation from the Arabic and Greek at Toledo and elsewhere in the early 
and middle thirteenth century. At this time European scholarship was 

1Dr. Charles Singer, after reading this work in manuscript, has made the ingenious 
suggestion (which he has convincingly demonstrated by writing out the names, Nicolaus 


and Ricardus, in the Beneventan script) that a very slight blurring of the ae might 
result in altering the former name into the latter. 


s 


34 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


put in possession of the whole fruits of a movement which had flourished 
in the Orient for centuries, and Aristotle became the foundation of 
religious philosophy, while Averrhoes and Avicenna provided a basis 
for scientific scholasticism. On account of the more or less sudden 
advance thus made in religious and metaphysical method, it is customary 
to think of the “scholastic period” as beginning in the thirteenth century. 

It has not been sufficiently understood, however, that the translations 
of Constantine and the School of Salernum gave the Occident some of 
the fruits of Oriental scholasticism in medicine a hundred years before 
the later Arabic philosophers and physicians were translated at Toledo. 
Medical writers could and did learn the rudiments of scholastic method 
from the Pantegni and the Isagoge, and therefore the appearance in the 
Anatomia Ricardi of a highly didactic style, an elaborate system of classi- 
fication, and the beginning of an artificially explanatory and argumenta- 
tive method, is perfectly compatible with the composition of this work 
in the latter part of the twelfth century. 

On the other hand, a descriptive science like anatomy does not lend 
itself to the extreme ratiocination reached in other branches of learning 
during the height of the movement, and therefore such texts as the 
Anatomia Vivorum, next to be discussed, or even still later works like 
Mondeville’s Anatomy, though they fulfill both the definition and the 
reproach we have quoted from Keane, do not, however, reach the limits 
of scholastic method. [Earlier texts are likely to exhibit more of the 
scholastic style, later texts less, than philosophical books of the corre- 
sponding periods. For these reasons the “scholastic manner” is an 
uncertain guide in determining the age of a medical document. 


A THIRTEENTH-CENTURY TEXT 


ANATOMIA Vivorum (Anatomia Ricarpr ANGLICr) 


The highly interesting text which concludes our series of anatomical 
works of the period 1080 to 1250 a. p. is best known through the edition 
of R. v. Toply (1902), who found it in a fifteenth century manuscript 
of the Palatine Library at Vienna (No. 1634), in company with a group 
of medical works headed by the name of Ricardus Anglicus. Toply 
supposed himself the discoverer of the text, and printed a very exact 
transcription, with valuable notes. He might not have undertaken this 
labor, so useful to modern students, had he been aware that the same 
text had already been in print for about 350 years. It is, in fact, identical 
in all but a few verbal details with the book called De Anatomia Vivorum, 
which was among those gathered together and printed by the too- 
generous sixteenth- and seventeenth-century editors of Galen, from 
Giunta and Froeben to Charterius. Somewhere in his authentic writings 
Galen refers to a book of his own composition on the anatomy of the 
living, and the first editors perhaps assumed that this was what they 
were printing, in spite of the fact that it contains references to Avicenna 
and Isaac, which should have enlightened even the most uncritical of 
Renaissance editors. None of the known manuscripts call the book 
Anatomia Vivorum, and there is no particular justification in the book 
itself for such a title. However, I shall use that name in this account 
in preference to Anatomia Ricardi Anglici (for which, as we shall see, 
there is no authority at all), in order to avoid any further confusion 
with the work Anatomia Ricardi (Salernitant). 

The text is so obviously important for the history of the period 
between Salernum and Bologna that it has been disappointing to have no 
manuscript earlier than the fifteenth century. For this reason I under- 
took in 1924 a deliberate search for other and earlier manuscripts. The 
British Museum catalogue revealed, in MS. Sloan 59, another fifteenth- 
century copy headed by the title Liber Anatomiae que Aristotelis dicitur. 
A third claimant for the authorship! 

Finally, a suggestive entry in the list of manuscripts at Chartres led 
me to visit that too-little-known library, where I had the pleasure of 
examining a hitherto unknown copy of this book, which is two centuries 
older than the other copies and which must have been written out within 
a generation or two of its author’s lifetime. 

This manuscript is found in the Bibliotheque Publique de Chartres, 
where it is MS. No. 284, Galient Opuscula. It is a well-preserved parch- 
ment book of the thirteenth century. On the first leaf there is a table 
of contents in an old hand, and on the reverse a paragraph of crabbed 

35 


36 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


and practically illegible writing a century or two later than the book, 
of which the first line reads “iste liber est magistri Nicolai de Azola 
medici.” At the top of the second leaf in an eighteenth-century hand 
is the note ‘ex bibliotheca capitoli Carnotensis.” The book contains 266 
leaves, three at the end having been excised; the text, which is written 
in a very regular small hand, runs continuously throughout the volume, 
one book beginning on the line next after completion of the previous 
book, indicating that the volume was written as a whole from beginning 
to end. Each book is headed by a handsome initial letter in gold and 
colors, and in some of the books, including the Anatomia, the chapters 
are headed by very neat small initials in blue and red. Where these occur 
there are marginal decorations consisting of lines and scrolls in blue and 
red, some of them containing small heads of animals. All these details 
suggest that the text was considered worthy a skillful scribe and was 
prepared for a client of taste and means. 

In determining the age of this manuscript I have had the friendly 
advice of Dr. Charles Singer and Professor C. H. Haskins, both of 
whom are disposed to place it at about the middle of the thirteenth cen- 
tury, without excluding the possibility of origin at any time between 
1250 and 1300. 

The table of contents is as follows: 

1. Liber de elementis. 
complexionibus. 
4 simpliciis medicis. 
iN malitiae complexionibus diversae. 
i iuvamento membrorum. 
ingenio sanitatis. 
tactu pulsium. 
~ motibus liquidis. 
. voce et anhelitu. 
Aone anatomia. 
haa morbo accidente. 


12. Mega Tegni. 
13. Liber de interioribus membris. 


et ee ee 


14. criticis diebus. 

Lape edi crisi. 

165i spermate. 

AiO hae secreta Galieni a magistro Girardo Cremonensi translata de arabico 


in latine verba Galieni. 


The volume is therefore a collection of some of the smaller books of 
Galen, with a number of others incorrectly ascribed to him, some of them 
no doubt translations from the Arabic and others compilations made in 
Europe, the whole forming just the kind of omnium gatherum that went 
under the name of Galen from the twelfth century on through the 
Renaissance. 

The anatomical portion runs from folia 139 verso to 149 verso, begin- 
ning “Incipit lib. Galieni de anathomia. Medicorum anatomicos necesse 
est praecognoscere quod humanum corpus cum sit compositum .. .” 


CORNER PLATE 3 


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A Tiurteenth-Century Text 37 


and ending “et proximum est hepar et ita patet diversitas inter G. et Ar. 
Explicit anatomia.”’ The text resembles the printed Anatomia Vivorum 
(pseudo-Galeni) almost literally, with only three or four trifling differ- 
ences in titles and headings of the chapters. The pseudo-Galenic text, 
however, differs from that of Toply’s manuscript in several particulars ; 
it has a number of Latin words where the manuscripts have Arabic terms; 
its readings are sometimes more intelligible than those of the manu- 
scripts, and there is a slight difference in arrangement, the section on 
the veins and on phlebotomy (sec. 43 in Toply) being placed in the 
pseudo-Galenic text before the passage “de anatomia membrorum 
consimiliorum.” 


SOURCES OF THE ANATOMIA VIVORUM: AVICENNA AND RHAZES 


Having obtained from the characteristics of the Chartres manuscript 
fairly definite proof that the text is hardly later than the middle of the 
thirteenth century, we may proceed to determine its earliest possible date 
of composition, first examining the text itself for evidence of its sources. 
In this our author has aided us by making a number of citations from ~ 
well-known authors, namely, Aristotle, Avicenna, Galen, Hippocrates, 
and Isaac. 

Among the fruits of the great activity in translating from the Arabic 
which centered at Toledo at the end of the twelfth century were Latin 
versions of two more of the comprehensive cyclopaedias of medicine 
which were a characteristic product of the Arabic culture. Gerard of 
Cremona’s translation of the Canon of Avicenna was made some time 
between the years 1170 and 1187. Such was the favor accorded Gerard’s 
work that his version has never been superseded; from manuscript it 
went into print about fifteen times before 1500 and often thereafter. 
Later editors did not much revise the text, and therefore it happens that 
we now have at hand the same version from which the compiler of 
Anatomia Vivorum made his citations. 

The Khitaab-al-Mansuri of Rhazes was also translated about the same 
time, perhaps also by Gerard, and became one of the chief text-books 
of mediaeval medicine under the latinized name Liber ad Almansorem. 
Like the Canon, this twelfth-century translation was preserved and printed 
many times. In the work of Rhazes the anatomical material forms a 
separate chapter, the first in the book. It is a brief systematic description 
of the bodily tissues and organs, compiled from Galen, Hippocrates, and 
Oribasius (as shown long ago by Freind, 1725-1727) without original 
additions and of course without evidence of any examination of animals. 
The anatomical descriptions of Avicenna, compiled in the same way 
from the ancients after the example set by Rhazes and Ali Abbas, are 
not found in a single chapter set apart for anatomy, but are scattered 
through the vast reaches of the Canon. In Koning’s useful French and 


38 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


Arabic edition of the three chief Arabic anatomies, Avicenna’s anatomy 
is gathered into one treatise, in which it may easily be compared with 
its two predecessors. 

Toply, the first modern editor of Anatomia Vivorum, realized that his 
text was based largely upon Avicenna, but he did not look farther into 
its sources. To this first step I can now add an analysis which goes 
far toward explaining its history. The Anatomia Vivorum contains 
long passages from Avicenna and a smaller number from Rhazes; and 
all these passages are copied verbatim from Gerard of Cremona’s trans- 
lation of the Canon and from the ancient translation of Rhazes. These 
we may list as follows, the numbers referring to the chapter of Toply’s 
edition : 


. Introduction. Not from Avicenna or Rhazes. 

_ De membris consimilis. Many sentences from Canon, Lib. 1, Fen. 1, 

Doct..5, Cap. -: : 

. De nervis. Almost literally from ibid., Cap. 1, and Cap. 1, summa. 

De cordis. From the same, but not quite verbatim. 

De ligamentis. ibid., Cap. 1. 

De arteriis. ibid., slightly reworded. 

De venis. The first part of this passage is from the same, slightly 

reworded. 

De panniculis. From the same with many verbal changes. 

De carne. The first lines are from the same. 

De adipe, and 

De medulla. Corresponding passages not found in the Canon; based 

in part upon a suggestion in Aristotle, Hist. Animalium, Lib. 
EME EE yy Oi AUe 

De mollicie et duricie. A short passage on the humors of the eye, 

probably interpolated. 

. De nucha. Interesting theoretical section not found in the Arabic 
sources, but incorporating an idea from Aristotle, Partes 
Animalium, Lib. II, Cap. VI. 

14. De virtutibus, ortu et structura membrorum simplicium, 

15. De vasis, 

16. De cute, 

17. De organicis membris, 

18. De felle, 

19. De ossibus, etc., 

20. De principalibus membris, and 

21, 22, 23, 24, De corde. These sections are all compiled from the various 

sources, quoting Galen, Aristotle, and Isaac, but without long 
verbatim excerpts. 

25. De arteriis cordis. Follows literally at first Avicenna, Lib. 1, Fen 1, 

Doct. 5, Cap. 1. Then describes lung, following ibid., Fen 10, 
Capri: 

26. De compositione oculi. Suggests Avicenna. 

27. De auribus. Begins literally from Avicenna, then deviates. 

28. De nasi. Reminiscent at first of Avicenna. 

29. De ore. Largely uses words of Avicenna, Lib. 3, Fen 6. 

30. De dentibus. 


S100 NAMA Ne 


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pan, 
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A Thirteenth-Century Text 39 


31. De uva. 

32. De meri. 

33. De stomacho. 

34. De compositione stomachi. 

35. De pluribus vasis secum. 

36. De epate. 

37. De pluribus vasis. 

38. De colatoriis. 

39. De vesica. Sections 30 to 39 do not make use of the exact words of 
Avicenna nor of Rhazes. 

40. De matrice, etc. Reminiscent throughout of Avicenna. 

41. De quo creatum sit cor. The first sentences reworded from Avicenna. 

42. De operationibus ab anima procedentibus. A compilation, based in 
part on quotations from Aristotle. 

43. De viginti paribus nervorum. This section is a cento made of the 
two Gerardine translations, being taken verbatim from Rhazes 
ad Almansorem, Tract. 1, Cap. 5, and from Avicenna, Lib. 1, 
Fen 1, Doct. 5 (Summa 3), Cap. 3. 

44. De venis. The first paragraph is verbatim from Rhazes, loc. cit., and 

| the second part is largely from Avicenna, Lib. 1, Fen 4, Cap. 

20 (partly verbatim). 


DATE OF THE ANATOMIA VIVORUM 


The fact that our author has compiled his book so largely from the 
Gerardine translations proves of course that the Anatomia Vivorum 
is subsequent to them in date, and can not have been compiled before 
1180 at the earliest. On the other hand, the latest possible date is deter- 
mined within a decade or two by a discovery made by Ferckel (1912, 
1913) that Thomas of Brabant (Thomas de Cantimpré), in his encyclo- 
paedic work De Naturis Rerum, made about 22 excerpts from the 
Anatomia Vivorum. One of these excerpts, which is from the section 
on the uterus, was printed by Ferckel in his book of 1912, but the others 
are merely mentioned in his later paper, and I have not been able to 
verify them for want of a copy of De Naturis Rerum, which exists only 
in manuscript. Ferckel’s specimen passage is a verbatim quotation of 
ten or twelve lines from Anatomia Vivorum, introduced by the words 
“Galen dicit’’; according to Ferckel all of the excerpts are ascribed to 
Galen. 

There can be hardly any doubt, therefore, that the Anatomia Vivorum 
was in existence at the time De Naturis Rerum was written, namely, 
about the year 1225 or not later than 1240. In the hope of still further 
narrowing the limits of 1180-1240 thus arrived at, I have devoted some 
labor to the citations from Aristotle which occur a dozen times in the 
book. Most of these refer to readily discoverable passages in De Partibus 
Animalium and De Generatione, in sufficient detail to suggest that the 
author had access to a copy of those works in Latin. The researches 
of Jourdain (1843), unchanged by Grabmann’s later work (1916), 
have revealed only two early translations of Aristotle on Animals. One 


40 Anatonical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


of these was made by Michael Scot at Toledo at a date not later than 
1236 and perhaps as early as 1210-1225. This was made from an 
Arabic version. Later (about 1260), William of Moerbeke prepared 
another translation directly from the Greek. Neither has been printed, 
but both exist in manuscript.* On the authority of Camus (1801) and 
of Jourdain, the MS. lat. 6989 (ancien fonds) of the Bibliotheque 
Nationale is a copy of Scot’s translation, and No. 14724 (formerly 
listed Fonds de Saint Victor, No. 333) is the Graeco-Latin translation. 
From a brief comparison of the quotations in the Anatomia Vivorum 
with the original texts in these two manuscripts I believe that neither 
had been copied verbatim by our anatomical compiler. However, Scot’s 
translation is at present the only known Latin version of Aristotle on 
Animals which was available before 1240. Unless our author had in 
some way had access to the Arabic, or had a Latin source which has 
escaped notice, we must assume that he was merely quoting from Scot’s 
Aristotle, but in a paraphrastic way. If this be the case, the date of our 
anatomical text lies between the years 1210 and 1240, probably about 
Lz20) 

About the same time, another author was engaged in a similar though 
greater compilation from the same sources. This was Albert Graf von 
Bollstadt, Albertus Magnus, whose vast cyclopaedia of all knowledge 
includes a review of natural history (learned edition by Stadler, 1916). 
The work is a sort of free rendering of Aristotle’s Natural History, 
interlarded with excerpts from Avicenna, Rhazes, and other writers and 
bound together by the editorial comments of Albertus himself. A com- 
parison of the anatomical chapters with the Anatomia Vivorum shows 
that the two writers often select the same passages from their authorities, 
but not in exactly the same words. In their chapters on the nerves, for 
instance, Albertus (Lib. 1, Tract 1, Cap. 1) follows Avicenna only, 
while Anatomia Vivorum combines Avicenna and Rhazes, but copies 
the words of Avicenna more closely than does Albertus. Anatomia 
Vivorum takes passages from Avicenna which are not in Albertus, 
for example, Section 44, de phlebotomia. The quotations from Aristotle 
are not in the exact wording used by Albertus. | 

The two works resemble one another particularly in the fact that both 
devote much attention to expounding the differences between Aristotle 
and Galen as to the origin of the veins and the relative importance of 
the heart in comparison with the brain and the liver. Both deal with 
the problem in exactly the same way, citing first the views of Aristotle, 

1 Stadler has in effect given us a printed edition of Michael Scot’s version of Aristotle 
on Animals, since in his great edition of Albertus Magnus, the passages which Albertus 
copied literally from Scot are all specially indicated. I did not learn of this indirect 


way of getting at Scot’s version until after my examination of the manuscripts, but study 
of Stadler’s text merely confirms the statement made above. 


A Thirteenth-Century Text 41 


then Galen’s dissenting opinion, followed by the teaching of Avicenna, 
and finally asserting their own concurrence with Aristotle. 

In short, the Anatomia Vivorum is certainly not an abstract from the 
work of Albertus, which it seems indeed to antedate by a decade or more; 
but the two books reflect the same influences so plainly that one is tempted 
to suggest some sort of vague relation between them. Sudhoff, in his 
Handbuch (1922), considers the Anatomia Vivorum an early work of 
the Bolognese school; but I am more inclined to the hypothesis that the 
book was composed in the North, perhaps at Paris or in western Ger- 
many, by a pupil of one of the Dominican cloister schools in which 
Albert the Great lectured after his removal from Padua. 

Wherever composed, and whoever the author, this little compendium 
of anatomy is one of the very first books of the Middle Ages to show 
the influence of the Aristotelian biology. In this sense it marks one 
of the turning-points in the history of thought. 


RIcARDUS SALERNITANUS AND Ricarpus ANGLICUS 


The persistent association of the name “Ricardus” with two of the 
early mediaeval anatomies demands discussion here, although the data 
are too meager to permit a solution of the problem. All the accounts of 
the two Richards in recent historical literature can be traced back to three 
sources. In the first place, Giles de Corbeil (Aegidius Corbolensis), 
who taught in Paris about the beginning of the thirteenth century, men- 
tions in his well-known medical poem a physician named Richard, an 
old man who had been his teacher. He seems to say that he knew this 
man at Salernum, but, if the punctuation be shifted, as it is in some 
editions, the reference is then to Montpelier, and therefore, as Littré 
has pointed out, we are not even perfectly certain that there was a Richard 
at Salernum. No such name is found in the Liber Confratrum. The 
anatomical text which we call Anatomia Ricardi (Salernitani) does not 
bear the name of Richard in all the manuscripts. As shown in the list 
(page 31), it was variously ascribed during the thirteenth and fourteenth 
centuries to Galen, to a Richard, to an Alan, to an Albert, and to an 
anonymous writer. Finally, a manuscript of the Bibliotheque Nationale, 
Ancien Fonds, No. 7056, ascribes the book to Ricardus Anglicus. To 
Vincent of Beauvais, who quoted it freely in his Speculum Naturale 
(see page 33), this book was anonymous, since Vincent always refers to 
“libro de anathomia” or “libello de anathomia.” . The choice of the 
name Richard among all these possibilities as the title used by modern 
historians is due to the chance that the Berlin manuscript, from which 
it was first printed by Florian, bore the name Anatomia Ricardi. Toply 
(1898) was the first to suggest that this Richard was none other than 
the teacher mentioned by Giles de Corbeil. Hence the full title, Anatomia 
Ricardi (Salernitani), which serves now to distinguish this book, 


42 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


although we are far from certain that a Richard wrote it, nor that it 
was written at Salernum, nor even whether there was a Richard at 
Salernum. 

The second source of information about the name Ricardus is found 
in the chronicle of Matthew Paris, who says (Giles’s translation, 1853) : 

“About the same time (1252) died Master Richard de Wendover, a canon 
of St. Paul’s at London, and a physician of great renown. This man took 
precautions for himself in a much more prudent way than the above-men- 
tioned Robert, for he provided the necessary means for nine priests to make 
a salutary offering to Christ forever, for the preservation of his soul. We 
have thought proper to make special mention of him in this book, because 
in his spontaneous devotion he bequeathed to the church of St. Albans a 
cross. ... This cross had formerly belonged to Pope Gregory, who set 
the greatest value on it, and as the aforesaid Master Richard had been that 
Pope’s physician, the latter when at the point of death gave what had been 


an object of the greatest regard to him, namely, this same cross, to his dearest 
friend, Master Richard.” 


Apparently no one has searched the Italian records of the time of 
Gregory IX for further information about Master Richard. The sur- 
name ‘de Wendover” seems to me open to doubt, because there was 
another man of the same period known in history as Magister Ricardus 
de Wendovre (de Wendene, de Wenden); he was elected Bishop of 
Rochester in 1235, after a dispute with the archbishop, died in 1250, and 
was buried in Westminster Abbey. He is mentioned many times in 
Matthew’s chronicle, a few chapters before the Richard who was Gregory 
IX’s physician, and it seems likely to the writer that Matthew Paris or 
some copyist of his book inadvertently attached the name of Wendover 
to the canon, thinking of the bishop. 

The third source from which present-day writers take an item about 
Richard is the hand-book of literary history, De Rebus Anglicis of Pits 
(Johannes Pitsius, 1619). Pits says of Ricardus Anglicus that he 
studied at Oxford and at Paris and became a skillful physician and an 
accomplished medical writer. He flourished about the year 1230. No 
authorities for these statements are cited, but a list of his writings is 
given from a manuscript of Peterhouse College, Cambridge.* Following 
Pits, the statement that Ricardus Anglicus studied at Oxford has become 
part of the standard tradition. The books which are attributed to 
Ricardus Anglicus in the manuscripts include De signis morborum, 
Summa de criticis diebus, De repressionibus, and several others, including 
an anatomy. ‘These books have never been carefully studied from the 

1T have found an earlier reference to Ricardus Anglicus, in the medico-historical list 
of Symphorien Champier, “De medicine claris scriptoribus in quinque partibus tractatus,” 
(Lyons, 1506?), which, although not very illuminating, may be given here for the sake 
of completeness: “Ricardus anglicus vir in medendis corporibus clarissimus et eruditus 
multa in medicines opuscula composuit. E quorum numero subjecta feruntur: de flebo- 


tomia lib. i, de anatomia lib. i., de signis pronosticis lib. i., de urinis lib. i, de aliis adhuc 
nihil vidi.” 


A Thirteenth-Century Text 43 


historical standpoint, and the list is therefore confused and uncertain. 
A critical examination and analysis of all the manuscripts is much to 
be desired. Meanwhile, there is no positive evidence to connect any 
known anatomical text with the name of this man. The only manuscript 
bearing the name of Richard with the surname Anglicus is that of Paris, 
lat. 7056, and this is actually a specimen of the older text, Anatomia 
Ricardt (Salernitani), which, as we have seen, can hardly be the work 
of a man who lived in the schools of Italy or Paris in the third decade 
of the thirteenth century. 

Furthermore, Toply was unjustified in ascribing the Anatomia 
Vivorum to Ricardus Anglicus, even though the table of contents of the 
manuscript lists it as Anatomia Ricardi. Sudhoff (1914) has shown 
by a reexamination of the volume that the anatomy itself is anonymous, 
but that the name of Ricardus was attached to it in the table of contents 
by the error of a cataloguer of about the year 1400, who imagined that 
a whole series of books at the beginning of the volume belonged to 
Richard because the first of them bore his name. The Chartres manu- 
script is anonymous, though it occurs in a volume of Galenic and pseudo- 
Galenic writings. To Thomas of Brabant, who used the text in 1240 
or earlier, it was known as the work of Galen. 

We have, then, as evidence for the name and anatomical work of 
Richard, (1) Giles de Corbeil’s eulogy of a twelfth-century teacher of 
that name; (2) a twelfth-century anatomical text sometimes ascribed 
to Richard, sometimes to other names; (3) the record of Pope Gregory’s 
physician, who was a Master Richard and apparently an Englishman; 
(4) a late and unauthoritative statement of Pits about a Ricardus 
Anglicus who studied at Oxford and Paris about 1230; (5) a number 
of therapeutic and diagnostic works, probably of the thirteenth century, 
constantly associated with the name of Ricardus Anglicus; (6) an 
anatomy of about 1225 a.p. ascribed by fifteenth-century error and 
twentieth-century conjecture to Richard the Englishman. Let the reader 
fit together these fragments of the puzzle according to his own judgment. 
It seems not unlikely that the supposed Salernitan Richard of Giles de 
Corbeil and the Richard of Italy, of Paris, and of England were actually 
one and the same. In any case, caution suggests that we leave to Richard 
the Englishman the reputation of his clinical writings alone, while deny- 
ing him present honor as the author of De Anatomia Vivorum, Nine 
priests said mass in St. Alban’s Cathedral for the peace and honor of 
Richard; as for the other, we know neither his name nor his fate, but 
his memory will be cherished by the whole company of anatomists, 
witnessing him the first of their number who sought to restore the spirit 
of Aristotle. 


TABULAR SUMMARY 
ANATOMICAL TEXTS OF THE EARLIER MIDDLE AGES 


1. Anatomia Cophonis (First Salernitan Demonstration). 
“Quoniam interiorum membrorum corporis humani compositiones omnino ignotae 
erant.” 
Date: about 1100-1150. 
Chief Sources: Constantine’s translations of the Pantegni and of the Apho- 
risms of Hippocrates. 
Manuscripts: Munich, Hofbibliothek, Lat. 4622, twelfth century; Paris, Bibl. 
Nat., Lat. 7030a, fourteenth century; Paris, Bibl. Nat., Lat. 7036, four- 
teenth century, and others. 
Printed editions: In Divi Mesue Vita, 1531, and other sixteenth century 
editions of Mesue; in sixteenth century complete editions of Galen; in 
Dryander, Anatomia, 1537; in Severino, Zootomia, 1645; in De Renzi, Coll. 
Salern., 1854. 
2. Second Salernitan Demonstration. 
“Corporis animalis machinam et compaginem universam membra varia et diversa.” 
Date: about 1100-1150. 
Chief Sources: Constantine’s translations of the Pantegni and of the Apho- 
risms of Hippocrates. 
Manuscripts: Breslau, Stadtbibliothek, MS. 1302, twelfth century (ca. 1170) ; 
Erfurt, Amploniana, Codex 204, twelfth-thirteenth centuries. 
Printed editions: In De Renzi, Coll. Salern., 1854; Benedict, 1920. 
3. Anatomia Mauri. 
“Quoniam humani corporis noticia exparcium incipit cognitione.” 
Date: probably about 1100-1150. 
Chief Sources: Constantine’s translations of the Pantegni and of the Apho- 
risms of Hippocrates. 
Manuscript: Rome, Vatican, Pal. lat. 1097, twelfth century. 
Printed edition: Ploss, 1920. 
4a, Anatomia Ricardi (Salernitani). 
“Galieno testante in Tegni quiscumque interiorum membrorum corporis humani 
dispositionem scire desiderat.” 
Date: twelfth century. 
Source: Constantine’s Pantegni. 
Manuscripts: Wiirzburg, Univ. Bibliothek, m. p. q. 1, thirteenth century; 
Berlin, Kaiserliches Bibliothek, “in a fourteenth century MS. of Lanfranc,” 
and numerous others (see list, p. 31). 
Printed editions: Florian, 1875; Tarrasch, 1898; Schwarz, 1907. 
4b. Anatomia Magistri Nicolai physici (a variant of Anat. Ricardi Salern.). 
“Sicut testatur Galienus, si quis dispositionem membrorum intrinsecorum et 
extrinsecorum in corpore humano scire desiderat.” 
Date: twelfth century. 
Chief Source: Constantine’s Pantegni. 
Manuscript: London, British Museum, Additional MS. 26069, early thirteenth 
century. 
Printed edition: Redeker, 1917. 
5. Anatomia Vivorum (Anatomia Ricardi Anglici). 
“Medicorum anatomicos necesse est procognito scire quod humanum corpus sit 
conpositum.” 
Date: about 1225. 
Chief Sources: Gerard of Cremona’s translations of Rhazes and Avicenna; 
and an unidentified Latin version of Aristotle’s Natural History. 
Manuscripts: Chartres, Bibl. Publique, No. 284, thirteenth century; Vienna, 
Bibl. Pal. No. 1634, fifteenth century; London, British Museum, Sloane 59, 
fifteenth century. 
Printed editions: In sixteenth century complete editions of Galen; Téply, 1902. 


44 


Bibliography 45 


Since the preparation of this summary, Campbell’s Arabian Medicine 
and Its Influence on the Middle Ages (London: Kegan, Paul, Trench, 
Trubner & Co., 2 vols., 1926) has appeared. The second volume of 
Campbell’s work contains an extensive list of manuscripts of all the 
works attributed to Galen in the Middle Ages (taken from Diels), 
together with certain indications as to printed editions. The list includes 
(vol. 2, pp. 138-139) five manuscripts of the Anatomia Vivorum not 
mentioned in the present work, none of them as early, however, as 
Chartres No. 284. On pages 137, 138 there is a long list of manuscripts 
under the title De Anatomia. From the list it is not possible to know 
exactly what these are, but no doubt many of them are copies of Anato- 
mia Ricardi (Salernitani). Campbell’s entry (page 138), implying 
that this text has been printed in the Frellonius Opera Galeni is mis- 
leading, since the page cited proves actually to contain the Anatomia 
Parva (Cophonis). Campbell states, without citations or other evidence, 
that Greek and Arabic manuscripts are known; but if the Latin manu- 
scripts of his list are what they seem to be, it is certain that they can not 
have antecedent Greek or Arabic versions. 


WORKS CITED 


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“ARTICELLA.” Articella novissima per excellentissimum Doctorem dominum Hierony- 
mum de Salijs Faventinum recognita, etc. Venetiis, 1523. 


AVICENNA (HUSAIN IBN ABD ALLAH, IBN SINA). Liber canonis ....a Gerardo 
Carmonensis ex Arabico sermone in latine conversa .... ab Andrea Alpago 
nunc autem a Benedicto Rinio.... illustrata. Basiliae, 1556. 


BENEDICT, Kart Hetnricu. Die Demonstratio anatomica corporis animalis (Henschel) 
auf Grund einer Nachpriifung des Breslauer handschriftlichen Textes und 
eines Vergleiches mit einer Erfurter Handschrift neu herausgegeben. Leipzig, 
(Dissertation), 1920. 

BUERSCHAPER, RupotpH. Ein bisher unbekannter Aderlasstraktat des Salernitaner 
Arztes Maurus: “De Flebotomia.” Leipzig, (Dissertation), 1919. 

Camus. Notice des manuscrits de la Bibliothéque Nationale Nos. 6788, 6789, 6790, 
6791, 6792, etc. Contenant |’Histoire des animaux d’Aristote traduite en latin 
par Michel Scotus ...etc. In: Notices et extraits des manuscrits de la 
Bibliotheque Nationale et autres Bibliothéques, T. VI. Paris, 1801. 

CAPPARONI, Pietro. “Magistri Salernitani nondum cogniti.” Welcome Historical 
Medical Museum, London, Research Studies in Medical History, No. 2, 1923. 

CoNSTANTINUS AFRICANUS. Opera, conquisita undique magno studio, jam primum typis 
evulgata. Basiliae, 1536-39. 

DrYANDER, JOHANNES. Anatomia, hoc est, corporis humani dissectionis pars prior, in 
qua singula quae ad caput spectant recensantur membra... . deliniantur. 
Item: Anatomia porci, ex traditione Cophonis; infantis, ex Gabriele de 
Zerbis. Marpurgi, 1537. 

ERCHENBRECHER, HANs. ,Der Salernitaner Artzt Archimatthaeus und ein bis heute unbe- 
kannter Aderlasstraktat unter seinem Namen. Leipzig, (Dissertation), 1919. 

FERCKEL, CurisTopH. Die Gynakologie des Thomas von Brabant. Ein Beitrag zum 
Kenntnis der mittelalterlichen Gynakologie und ihre Quellen. Alte Meister 
der Medizin und Naturkunde, Bd. V. Munich, 1912. 

——. Literarische Quellen der Anatomie im 13. Jahrhundert. Arch. f. d. Geschichte 
der Naturwissenschaften, VI, 78-82, 1913. 


46 Anatonucal Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


FLoRIAN, JuLius. Die Anatomia des Magister Richardus. Breslau, (Dissertation), 1875. 

Fonaun, A. Arabic and Latin anatomical terminology, chiefly from the Middle Ages. 
Christiania, 1922. 

FREIND, JOHN. The History of Physic. London, 1725-27. 

Garurl, C. A. Liber confratrum di S. Matteo di Salerno. In: Fonti per la storia 
d'Italia. Rome, 1922. 

GERARD OF CREMONA (GERARDUS CREMONENSIS). See Avicenna, Rhazes. 

Gracosa, Piero. Magistri Salernitani nondum editi. Turin, 1901. 

GILES DE CorBEIL (AEGIDIUS CoRBOLENSIS). Carmina medica ad fidem manu scriptorum 
codicum et veterum editionum recensuit, notis et indicibus illustravit Ludovicus 
Choulant. Leipzig, 1826. 

GRABMANN, MartIN. Forschungen tiber die lateinischen Aristoteles-Ubersetzungen des 
XIII Jahrhunderts. Beitrage zur Geschichte der Philosophie des Mittelalters, 
Bd. XVII, H. 5-6, 1916. 

voN Hatier, ALBRECHT. Bibliotheca Anatomica. Zurich, 1774~77. 

HARTMANN, FrRigepricH. Die Literatur von Frith-und-Hochsalerno, i.d. Inhalt des 
Breslauer Codex Salernitanus.mit erstmal verdffentliche zweier Traktate aus 
dieser Handschrift. Leipzig, (Dissertation), 1919. 

Henscuet, A. W. E. Tu. Die Salernitanische Handschrift. Janus, Bd. I, S. 40-84, 
300—368, 1846. 

Hyrti, JosEpH. Das Arabische und Hebraische in der Anatomie. Vienna, 1879. 

Onomatologia anatomica. Geschichte und Kritik der anatomischen Sprache 

der Gegenwart, etc. Vienna, 1880. 

Isaac JUDAEUS (ISHAK IBN SULAIMAN AL IR’ALI). Opera omnia Ysaak. Lugduni, 1515. 

JourDAIN, AMABLE. Recherches critiques sur l’age et l’origine des traductions latins 
d’Aristote et sur des commentaires grecs ou arabes employés par les docteurs 
scholastiques; nouvelle édition, revue et augmentée par Charles Jourdain. 





Paris, 1843. 
KADNER, ALBERT. Ein Liber de Urinis der Breslauer Kodex. Hamburg, (Dissertation), 
1919. 


DE Koninc, P. Trois traités d’anatomie Arabes. Leyden, 1903. 

Littré, E. Richard, Médecin. Histoire litteraire de France, T. XXI, pp. 383-393, 1847. 

MATTHEW Parts. The Chronicle of Matthew Paris, transl. by G. A. Giles. London, 1853. 

MESUE (YUHANNA IBN MasawatH). Divi Mesue vita. Lugduni, 1531. 

Nacet, C. L. Commentatio de anatomia Salernitana per compendium Salernitanum. 
Breslau, 1852. 

PacEL, J. Eine bisher unveroffentliche lateinische Version der Chirurgie der Pantegni 
nach einer Handschrift der Konigl. Bibliothek zu Berlin. Arch. f. klin. 
Chirurgie, 81, Th. I, 755-786, 1906. 

Pits, JOHANNES. De rebus anglicis. Paris, 1619. 

Pross, W. L. H. Anatomia Mauri, eine bisher unbekannte Salernitaner Skizze vom 
Bau des Menschen auf Grundlage einer Zergliederung des Tierkoérpers heraus- 
gegeben nach einer weiland Heidelberger Handschrift des XII Jahrhunderts 
im Vatikan zu Rom (Pal. lat. 1097, Bl. 122). Leipzig, (Dissertation), 1921. 

REDEKER, FRANZ. Die “Anatomia Magistri Nicolai phisici”’ und ihr Verhaltnis zur 
Anatomia Cophonis und Ricardi. Leipzig, (Dissertation), 1917. 

DE RENZI, SALVATORE. Collectio Salernitana. Ossia documenti inediti e trattati di 
medicina appartenenti alla scuola medica Salernitana. 5 volumi. Naples, 
1852-57. 

RuAzes (Asu Bekr MOHAMMED BEN ZAKARIA, AR-Razi). Liber ad Almansorem. 
In: Opera parva Abubetri filii Zachariae, etc. Lugduni, 1511. 

SCHWARZ, IcNAz. Die medizinischen Handschriften der kgl. Universitats-Bibliothek 
in Wurzburg. Beschreibendes Verzeichnis mit literarhistorischen Anmer- 
kungen. Wurzburg, 1907. 

SEvERINO, M. A. Zootomia Democritea. Norimbergae, 1645. 

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Salerno, the first University; an attempted reconstruction. In: Essays on 
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Se CO 


= ee a 


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YsaAc JuDAEUS. See Isaac. 








REVISED LATIN TEXT OF THE ANATOMIA PORCI 
(COPHONIS) 


The following text is based on that of Severino as reprinted by De 
Renzi. The insertions and alterations, which are distinguished by paren- 
theses, are derived from the various other sources as indicated by 
footnotes. 


Quoniam interiorum membrorum corporis humani compositiones* 
omnino erant ignotae placuit veteribus medicis et maxime Galeno ut 
per anatomiam brutorum animalium interiorum membrorum positiones’ 
manifestarentur. Et cum inter bruta animalia quaedam ut simia in 
exterioribus nobis inveniuntur similia, interiorum partium nulla inveni- 
untur adeo similia ut porci, et ideo in eis anatomiam fieri destinavimus. 
Est autem anatomia recta divisio, quae sic fit: porcum debes inversum 
ponere, quem per medium gutturis incides, et tunc primum tibi lingua 
occurret, quae dextrorsum et sinistrorsum quibusdam nervis alligata est, 
qui motivi dicuntur. (Et ad ipsam linguam ab inferioribus nervis 
veniunt quidam nervi qui reversivi dicuntur)? quod cum ipsi a cerebro 
veniant ad pulmonem revertuntur ad linguam, per quos lingua movetur 
ad voces. Ibi iuxta sunt carnes glandulosae, quae dicuntur pharynges, 
et eorum inflatio similiter dicitur: sunt etiam ibi maximae glandulae, in 
quibus colligitur humor et facit branchos. In radicibus linguae oriuntur 
duo meatus, scilicet trachea arteria, per quam transit ad pulmonem aer, 
et oesophagus, per quem mittitur cibus ad stomachum; et est trachea 
arteria super oesophagum, super quam est quaedam cartilago, quae 
dicitur epiglottis, quae clauditur aliquando ut cibus et potus per eam 
non descendat et aperiatur ut aer intret et exeat. Inter tracheam arteriam 
et oesophagum est locus qui dicitur isthmon, inter duo® praecipitia, in 
quo aliquando humor colligitur et facit apostema quod dicitur angina; 
aliquando pars est intra et pars extra et dicitur squinantia; aliquando 
totus extra et dicitur synantia.* Tunc debes separare tracheam arteriam 
ab oesophago et invenies pulmonem et cor. Cor vero est magis in 
sinistra parte (et pulmo in dextra)® quorum quilibet in sua capsula 
continetur. In capsula cordis colligitur materia, quae facit syncopen; 
in capsula pulmonis colligitur materia quae facit peripneumoniam. Et 
tunc videbis quandam venam quae concava dicitur, quae ab hepate venit 


per medium diaphragmatis et subintrat inferiorem auriculam cordis et 


+ Severino and Pseudogalen have: partes. 
? Inserted from Codex Monacensis lat. 4622. 
3 Cod. Monac. has: dura. 
“ This clause follows Cod. Monac. and Pseudogalen; the Divi Mesue Vita and Severino 
texts are defective. 
5 Inserted from Pseudogalen. 
48 


=?" oneal 


sc 


Revised Latin Text of Anatomia Porci 49 


fit arteriam de qua fiunt omnes aliae arteriae quae procedunt ad membra, 
in quibus fiunt pulsus, quibus mediantibus cor alligatum est pulmoni 
(et aerem trahit a)* fistulis pulmonis, in quibus colligitur humor quae 
facit sansugium; aliquando colligitur extra eas et facit anhelitum, ali- 
quando intus et extra et facit orthomiam. Et quod pulmo sit cavernosus ? 
potestis probare si cum calamo intromisso infletur. Sub illis membris 
est panniculus qui dicitur diaphragma, qui dividit ea ab nutritivis, qui 
coniungitur teneritatibus costarum, in quibus colligitur humor qui facit 
pleuresin. Tunc debes reverti ad nutritiva et computa longitudinem 
oesophagi ad usque septimum spondyle, et incipit os stomachi supra 
diaphragma, stomachus vero inferius. Sub stomacho est intestinum quod 
dicitur portanarium, sub portanari est duodenum, sub duodeno est 
leiunum, sub ieiuno est orbum, sub orbo saccus, sub sacco longaon, et 
sunt ibi quaedam gracilia intestina, quae lateralia vocantur, in quibus 
est iliaca passio. Ex dextra parte sub fundo stomachi est hepar positum, 
in cuius substantia est quaedam vesica, quae cystis fellis appelatur, et 
super hepar sunt duo panniculi, zirbus et siphac, qui sunt implicati velut 
rete. Quod apparet ibi pingue et grossum, dicitur zirbus; quod autem 
subtile est, siphac; quae procedunt usque ad splenem, per quos venae 
transeunt, per quas melancholia ab hepate ad splenem mittitur. Est 
autem splen membrum oblongum in sinistro latere positum. Loca quae 
sunt sub splene et hepate dicuntur hypochondria. Tunc debes omnia 
intestina extrahere, et tunc occurret tibi in medio spinae arteria magna, 
sub qua et vena magna continetur, quae arteria fit de omnibus arteriis 
capitis, quae condensantur in unam magnam arteriam, quae descendit 
a lumbos et a se varias arterias transmittit, tam dextrorsum, quam sinis- 
trorsum ad inferiora. Vena ibi magna fit de venis capitis condensatis, 
quae venit usque ad renes, et bifurcatur, et ibi fit vena chilis in qua infi- 
guntur capillares venae, quae prae nimia parvitate sua videri non possunt, 
per quas urina cum quattuor humoribus mittitur ad renes. (Sunt autem 
renes quaedam membra oblonga et concava in principiis lumborum 
posita).* Tunc invenies ibi duos meatus, qui uritides (pori)* dicuntur, 
et per eos resudat urina in vesicam. Nam ipsi infiguntur vesicae qui 
etiam transeunt per quendam panniculum, quo omnia intestina praeter 
longaonem clauduntur, qui vocatur epigorontysmeon ° coli, quo rupto 
intestinum cadit in osceum, (supra quem est pinguedo quae vocatur 
omentum. Super omentum est siphac.).° 

(The following paragraphs are not found in all the sources, see p. 20.) 

* Inserted from Cod. Monac. 

? Div. Mes. Vit. has: caminosus; Cod. Monac.: carnosus. 

8 Inserted from Cod. Monac., Pseudogalen, and Paris 7036. 

“Inserted from Div. Mesue Vita and Cod. Monac. 

® Pseudogalen has: epigome cinctus menon. 


®Inserted from Cod. Monac. and Pseudogalen. Paris 7036 has: super omentum est 
sumen. : 


50 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


Nunc de anatomia matricis dicendum est. Sciendum est autem quod 
natura hoc membrum in mulieribus disposuit, ut quicquid in toto mense 
de superfluitate generaretur, ad hoc membrum in consueto tempore 
tanquam ad sentinam totius corporis mitteret: et inde mulieres naturaliter 
menstrua habuerunt. Est etiam hoc membrum ager naturae qui excolitur 
ut fructificet ; in quo aliquando ut in bonam terram elicitur, quod adhaeret 
in ea et per actionem cooperantis naturae calidae, et spiritu mediante 
inferius (infunditur more germinis) ;' et a se ramusculos emittit per 
quasdam radices vel ora quibus infigitur matrici, et per quae nutrimentum 
sibi ministratur et futuro foetui; et sic postea actione virtutum, ut saepe a 
me vobis dictum est, si bene recolitis, futurus foetus generatur, et augmen- 
tatur. Est autem posita matrix super intestina; et supra collum eius est 
vesica, et sub ea longaon est, et inferius est vulva. Tunc debes scindere 
matricem per medium os; ubi invenies duos testiculos superpositos, per 
quos sperma muliebris mittitur ad matricem ut ex eo et virili fiat foetus. 
Habet autem matrix septem cellulas; et si praegnans est, in ea foetum 
invenies, supra quem videbis quandam tunicam, quasi camisiam, quae 
secundina dicitur; quae rumpitur quando foetus recalcitrat ad exitum; 
quae alligata matrici et foetui venis per eam transeuntibus nutrimentum 
ad matricem et ad foetum transmittit; et illi meatus quibus foetus alli- 
gatur, dicuntur cotyledones. Est etiam ibi quidam magnus meatus, qui 
umbilicus dicitur, qui rumpitur iuxta matricem* in quantitate quattuor 
digitorum, ex cuius ligatura fiunt phlegmones in umbilico. 

Nunc de anatomia cerebri videamus. Debes ergo in summitate capitis 
incidere, et remota cute invenies pelliculas quasdam, quae dicuntur 
musculi, sub quibus invenies os quod dicitur cranium; sub cranio est 
pellicula, quae dicitur dura mater, sub qua est pia mater, denique 
cerebrum. In oculis est tunica quae appellatur coniunctiva et apparet 
alba; quae est iuxta eam, aliquantulum est subnigra, et dicitur cornea; 
quae sub illa magis est nigra et minor, et dicitur uvea. Tune incide per 
medium; et humor qui prius exibit, dicitur albugineus; qui post eum est, 
et coagulatus in modum crystalli, dicitur crystallinus; et qui ultimo est, 
ipse vitreus appellatur. Nervus qui ab interioribus venit ad oculum, qui 
est albus, et angustus, ipse dicitur opticus, et qui venit ad aures, dicitur 
auditorius nervus. 
authority of MS. Paris 7030a. 

* The Copho text edited by Schwarz gives the following reading, which is more intel- 
ligible than our text: ... rumpitur iuxta matricem, cum foetus egreditur, et cum foetu 
exit, quem ligant obstetrices in quantitate IIII digitorum; ex cuius ligatura fiunt phleg- 


mones. Paris 70304 has a similar passage ending “ex ligatura fiunt revolutiones 
umbilici” ( !) 


Anatonua Porci (Cophonis ) 5} 


THE ANATOMY OF THE PIG, ATTRIBUTED TO COPHO 


[Translated from the preceding revised Latin text] 


Because the structure of the internal parts of the human body was 
almost wholly unknown, the ancient physicians, and especially Galen, 
undertook to display the positions of the internal organs by the dissection 
of brutes. Although some animals, such as monkeys, are found to 
resemble ourselves in external form, there are none so like us internally 
as the pig, and for this reason we are about to conduct an anatomy upon 
this animal. 

The term anatomy signifies “correct division,” which is performed as 
follows: place the pig on its back and incise its throat in the middle. The 
first thing which presents itself is the vocal organ,* which is bound on 
the right and the left by certain nerves, called motivi. Also there come 
to the vocal organ, from below, certain nerves which are called reversivi, 
because after proceeding from the brain to the lung they return to the 
vocal organ, by which means it is moved in producing the voice. Nearby 
there are fleshy masses called pharynges, and the same term is applied 
to swelling of these structures. There are also in this region large glands 
in which humors collect and cause tumor of the throat.” At the base of 
the tongue arise two passages, namely, the trachea arteria, through 
which air passes to the lung, and the oesophagus, through which food 
is transported to the stomach. The trachea arteria lies in front of the 
oesophagus, and upon it there is a certain cartilage known as epiglottis, 
which at times closes to prevent the entrance of food and drink, opening 
at other times to allow entrance and exit of air. 

Between the trachea arteria and the oesophagus is a space known as 
the isthmus, between two walls, in which humors may collect and cause 
an abscess called angina; sometimes this is partly internal and partly 
external and is called quinsy; sometimes it is wholly external and it is 
then called synanche. 

Next separate the trachea arteria from the oesophagus in order to 
expose the lung and heart. The heart is placed somewhat to the left side, 
and the lung on the right, and each is inclosed in its own capsule. In 
the capsule of the heart there may be an accumulation of matter, causing 
syncope; matter which gathers in the capsule of the lung causes 
peripneumonia. 

Next you will observe a vein, called vena concava, which comes from 
the liver through the middle of the diaphragm and enters, from below, 
the inferior auricle of the heart. It then becomes an artery, and from 


) 





1 The term Lingua evidently signifies the larynx rather than the tongue. 

* The word branchos is defined as tumor of the throat several times in the Salernitan 
clinical literature. Dr. Singer has called my attention to the following passage in 
Aristotle’s Historia Animalium (D’Arcy Thompson’s translation) : “the pig suffers from 
three diseases, one of which is called branchos, a disease attended with swelling about 
the wind-pipe and jaws. It may break out in any other part of the body,” etc. 


52 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


it arise all the other arteries which proceed to the members; in these the 
pulse occurs. By means of these vessels the heart is connected to the 
lung and draws air from the cavities of the lung. In these cavities fluid 
sometimes gathers and causes sansugium,; at times it gathers outside and 
causes anhelitus, sometimes both inside and outside and causes orthomuia. 
You can show the lung to be hollow by inflating it with a quill. Below 
these organs, and dividing them from the organs of nutrition, is a mem- 
brane called diaphragm, which is attached to the soft parts of the ribs, 
where the fluid gathers in pleurisy. 

Now turn to the organs of nutrition and measure the length of the 
oesophagus as far as the seventh vertebra. The os stomachi begins above 
the diaphragm, but the stomach itself lies below. After the stomach 
comes that part of the intestine called portanarium; next is the duodenum, 
after the duodenum the jejunum, after the jejunum the orbum, after 
the orbum the saccus, after the saccus, the longaon, and in the region 
of the latter there are small intestines called Jateralia, which are the seat 
of the iliac passion. i 

At the right side under the pouch of the stomach the liver is placed. 
In its substance there is a sac called the gall-bladder, and above the liver 
are two membranes, zirbus and siphac, which are folded together like 
a net. The one which appears thick and loaded with fat is called zirbus, 
but the one which is delicate is called siphac. ‘These membranes reach 
as far as the spleen, and are traversed by veins through which black 
biliary humor (melancholia) is transmitted from the liver to the spleen. 

The spleen is an oblong organ located in the left side. The regions 
under the spleen and liver are called hypochondria. Next remove all 
the intestines, whereupon the great artery will be visible in the middle 
of the spine; under it the great vein is found. ‘The artery is formed 
from all the arteries of the head, which unite to make up one great artery, 
and this descends to the loins and sends off various arteries in a down- 
ward direction, both on the right and on the left. The great vein is 
made up of all the veins of the head, and reaches to the kidneys, where 
it divides; and there also is found the vena chilis, into which enter the 
capillary veins, too small to be seen, through which the urine with the 
four humors is transmitted to the kidneys. The kidneys are oblong 
hollow organs situated at the upper part of the loins. 

Two passages called uritides pori are also found in this region, through 
which the urine oozes into the bladder, passing through a kind of mem- 
brane by which all the intestines are inclosed except the longaon, and 
which when broken allows the intestines to fall into the scrotum. Above 
this is a fatty structure called omentum. Above the omentum is the 
siphac. 


It is next necessary to discuss the anatomy of the uterus. It must 
be recognized that nature has contrived this organ in women in order 


Anatomia Porci (Cophonis) 53 


that whatever superfluities are generated during the course of the month 
may be sent to this organ as if to form the bilge-water of the whole 
body; this is the nature of the menses which women have. This organ 
is also nature’s field, which is cultivated that it may bear fruit; in which, 
when seed is sown, it remains as on good ground and through the 
cooperative action of natural warmth, and the mediation of vital spirits, 
it becomes implanted like a germinating seed, and sends out twigs through 
certain roots or mouths by which it is attached to the uterus, and through 
which nutriment is delivered to it and to the future foetus. Thus, later 
on, by the action of the bodily forces (as I have often told you, you may 
recall) the foetus-to-be is generated and augmented. The uterus is 
located above the intestine; above its neck is the bladder, and under it 
the longaon. Below is the vulva. Next cut the uterus through the middle 
of its os; you will find two testicles attached above it, by which the female 
seed is transmitted to the uterus and joins the male seed to form the 
foetus. The uterus has seven cells, and if the animal is pregnant, you 
will find the foetuses in these chambers. Over them you will find a kind 
of tunic, like a chemise, which is called secundine. This is broken when 
the foetus strives for exit. It is attached to the uterus and to the foetus 
by veins which run in it, and it carries nutriment to the uterus and to 
the foetus. Those openings by which the foetus is attached are called 
cotyledons. There is also a large channel, called umbilicus, which is 
broken (near the uterus when the foetus is delivered; midwives tie it) 
at a distance of four fingers from the foetus. When it is ligatured this 
causes phlegmons of the umbilicus. 

Now let us examine the structure of the brain. You are to make an 
incision in the top of the head, and when the skin is removed you find 
certain layers which are called muscles, under which you discover a 
bone, called cranium. Under the cranium is a thin layer called dura 
mater; under this is the pia mater, then the brain. In the eyes there is 
a tunic called conjunctiva, which appears white. Next to it is the cornea, 
which is rather grayish; the layer under that is black and slight; it is 
called uvea. Next cut the eye through the center. The first humor 
which appears is called albugineus, the next is coagulated like a crystal 
and is called crystallinus, and the last is called vitreous. The nerve which 
comes from the interior to the eye, which is white and slender, is called 
opticus, and that which goes to the ears is called the auditory nerve. 


THE SECOND SALERNITAN ANATOMICAL 
, DEMONSTRATION 


[Translated from the Latin text printed by Benedict, 1920] 


In frame and fabric the animal body is composed of members various 
and diverse; for Nature, the First and Foreknowing Cause, greatly to 
be revered in all her works, constructed the animal body of many mem- 
bers differing in quantity and quality, in order that the animal kingdom 
might be the culmination of all created things. Therefore each kind 
of animal has bodily members appropriate to serve its spirit and nature. 
The lion, for example, since he is of bold and angry spirit, has a body 
perfected to these qualities and is provided with suitable weapons in 
the shape of claws upon his feet and very sharp teeth in his mouth. The 
hare, on the other hand, being the timidest of beasts, possesses members 
which by their lightness are adapted to swift retreat, and its forelegs are 
shorter than its hind legs, that it may easily run uphill. Because of these 
diversities in the endowment of nature and spirit, the Great Creator and 
Father of All Things formed organs adapted to various functions, such 
as the human hand, in which the fingers are several and distinct, in order 
to grasp objects both large and small. He suffused the liver with redness 
to promote the formation of blood, and with foreseeing discretion 
endowed the breasts and testicles with whiteness for the making of milk 
and sperm. 

There are also three general operations, with three corresponding 
instrumental members, namely, animal, spiritual, and natural.t The 
animal members are created for sensation and voluntary motion in all 
animals; also in some animals for imagination and memory. The spir- 
itual members are for protecting the channels of breath and natural heat. 
The natural members are nutritive and generative. The nutritive are 
for the reintegration of bodily loss and waste and for the alteration 
of materials permuted from evil to good. The generative organs are 
made for the specializing of general substance and for the individualizing 
of special substance. In each of these systems there is one principal 
organ with others protective, expurgative, and adjuvant or accessory. 

*A modern translator can not preserve both the spirit and the letter of his original 
when dealing with the humoral physiology and the doctrine of vital spirits. A newer 
analytic physiology has driven the very terms out of the language, or given them altered 
connotations. Not only, for instance, has the word “animal” acquired a special meaning 
different from that of its Graeco-Latin significance, but the very idea of the anima is 
foreign to minds accustomed for reasons both religious and scientific to separate soul 
from mind, and both from life. The wirtutes spirituales have ceased to be “spiritual” 
since Harvey and Mayow, having been analyzed into circulatory, respiratory, and thermic 
functions. However, to avoid circumlocutions, I have retained the terms animal, spiritual, 


and natural members and forces throughout these translations, leaving it to the reader 
to make the interpretation. 


54 





Second Salernitan Demonstration 55 


Among the animal organs the brain is principal, because the animal 
force is principally located in it, and from it arise the other structures 
such as the nerves; and it is provided with others protective, expurgative, 
and adjuvant or accessory. The protective are the pia mater, which, by 
enfolding the brain like a devoted mother, protects it from the harshness 
of the dura mater; the dura mater, which protects the brain and pia 
mater from the hardness of the cranium; and the cranium, which protects 
all of these from outward harm The sk‘n in turn protects the cranium 
from external injury. The expurgative and adjuvant organs are the 
ears, eyes, nostrils, and the tongue, with the palate. The ears drain 
the brain of biliary excess, the eyes of melancholic, the nostrils of san- 
guineous and phlegmatic; the palate drains away excess of phlegm. 
These organs are also adjuvant, for hearing is established by mediation 
of the ears, sight by the eyes, smell by certain caruncles which hang like 
udders in the ends of the nostrils; taste is mediated by the tongue. The 
nerves are accessory, because they receive animal spirits from the brain 
and transport them throughout the body to endue it with sensation and 
voluntary motion. 

Among the spiritual members one is principal, namely, the heart, 
because the spiritual force is principally located in it and because othe 
parts, such as arteries, arise theretrom; and it is provided with other 
structures, protective, expurgative or adjuvant, and accessory. The 
protective parts include that membrane surrounding the heart which is 
called cassula cordis, the diaphragm, and the ribs outside. The expurga- 
tive and adjuvant parts are the lung, the muscles of the chest, and some 
of the membranes, because by their motion air is drawn in to temper 
the natural heat, to restore the vital spirit, and to evacuate excess of 
vapors. The accessory parts are the arteries, which receive the vital 
spirits from the heart and convey them throughout the whole body to 
conserve the natural heat. 

Among the nutritive members the liver is principal, because the nutri- 
tive force is principally seated in it, and because other parts, such as 
veins, arise therefrom; and it also is provided with organs protective, 
expurgative, and accessory. The protective organs include a certain 
membrane delicate as a spiderweb, and also a certain fatty structure, 
and much flesh on the outside. Expurgative are the lung and brain, 
from which excess phlegm is drained by the liver, black bile by the 
spleen, yellow bile by the gall-bladder, urine by the kidneys and urinary 
bladder. Several organs are accessory, for some prepare the food for 
alteration in the stomach, as, for instance, the teeth; others, such as the 
stomach and upper small intestines, digest and alter it preparatory to 
conversion into humors by the liver. Others, namely, the mesenteric 
veins, convey it to the liver; still others, the small intestines, attract to 
themselves the excess of moisture generated in the stomach. Finally, 


56 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


other organs receive the four humors from the liver, together with the 
natural spirits, and transport them throughout the body; in this way 
they deliver nutriment to the whole organism. 

Among the generative members the testicles are principal, because. the 
generative force is principally located in them and because other parts 
arise therefrom; and they possess organs protective, expurgative, and 
accessory. In the first place, the testicles are protected by a covering 
called osseum.* The expurgative parts are the seminal ducts, which 
receive sperm from the testicles and deliver it to the penis. The accessory 
parts are those vessels which deliver sperm to the testicles, the uterus, 
and the breasts. 

Knowledge of all these things is gained in many ways; from anatomy 
we learn their position and differences of structure and we get a simple 
and clear demonstration of their form. The word “anatomy” is derived 
from ana, or equal, and tomos, a division; hence an anatomy is an 
orderly dissection, and it is to be done as follows: 

The pig is killed by cutting the throat; not as some do, by putting a 
knife into the heart, for thus a great quantity of blood is drawn to the 
vital members and they can be less easily examined. When the throat 
has been cut, the pig is suspended by the hind feet * with the head down- . 
ward, so that all the blood may remain and not be shed; otherwise when 
the pig grows cold, there will be a constriction of the arteries and veins, 
and they can not well be distinguished. The ancients held various 
dissonant opinions on the subject of dissection; some said that anatomy 
should be studied from dead animals, others after due consideration 
declared that living animals were more useful for dissection, and the 
latter opinion prevailed on the authority of Galen, because the various 
passages are more easily visible when the living heat is still in them. 

The pig is next placed on its back. When the lower jaw is partially 
separated from the upper, one sees the tongue, which is the organ of 
taste and speech; it is composed of soft flesh and is put together like a 
sponge, clothed by certain membranes which cover it entirely on the 
upper side, but which cover the lower surface only as far as the ligaments 
by which it is attached to the jaw. In some persons these ligaments are 
too far from the end of the tongue and the tongue is therefore too long 
and lax, so that it can not be moved upward for the production of semi- 
vowels nor downward for the production of consonants, and this is one 
cause of impediment of speech. But this varies in different men; in 
others the ligaments may be too near the end of the tongue, and the 
latter thus being unable to move in divers directions, speech is impossible. 

* Scrotum. 

* This sentence, which follows the reading of the Erfurt MS., can be made intelligible 


by omission of the word “hind” (posteriores) so that the pig is made to hang by all four 
feet in a horizontal position, with the head dependent. 


Second Salernitan Demonstration BY. 


In such cases the ligament should be cut, in order to allow motion of 
the tongue over the whole mouth and palate. At the sides of the liga- 
ments and membranes are certain veins, as you have well seen, which 
conduct saliva to the tongue.* Next there are passages leading to the 
vital parts and to the brain, by which air drawn in through the nostrils 
passes in part to the brain and in part descends to the spiritual organs, 
as does also that air which is inspired through the mouth; thus occurs 
the collision and repercussion of spirits and vapors descending from 
the brain and arising from the spiritual organs, and this is the cause 
of sneezing. 

By making an incision in the fauces there appear certain rather large, 
loose, and spongy glands, which some call “faringes,” but I do not give 
assent to this usage, because I have not found it written in any book, 
nor have I heard it from any teacher. The word “faringes’ is properly 
applied to the projections of the gullet. There are also certain other 
masses which are smaller and firmer. These are all placed here for the 
purpose of gathering moisture from the brain and thus of preventing 
loss of motion by drying of the nerves and muscles. When abnormal 
humors gather here they cause branchos and scrofula. 

Next let a small incision be made over the gullet. Certain muscles 
are seen by which voluntary motion is produced. When a similar incision 
is made laterally, other muscles appear between skin and flesh, and there 
are still others all the way to the joints of the leg-bones; in all these 
voluntary motion is produced. In swine they are all fleshy in the middle 
and cord-like and ligamentous at the ends. By means of a deeper incision 
the gullet is seen; this is the extremity of the passages of the lung, placed 
and formed here for a double purpose. Its first and chief function is 
to inhale air and to emit gross and vaporous superfluities ; the second is 
to produce the voice, of which it is the chief instrument. It is formed 
of three cartilages. The first is convex inwardly and concave outwardly; 
in some men it can be palpated. The second cartilage is placed posteriorly 
near the oesophagus, wherefore some say (and this seems to be in agree- 
ment with the truth) that the second is relaxed at the beginning of the 
oesophagus when a man speaks, but the first covers the beginning of the 
trachea when he drinks; therefore if anyone while drinking suddenly 
attempts to begin speaking, the food finds an open passage through the 
trachea and passes downward; thus by irritating the vital spirit it sets 
up coughing. The third cartilage has a cavity continuous with the organs 
of vital spirits. It is to the projections of this gullet that the term 
faringes properly applies. To it the oesophagus is joined; in the begin- 
ning of this junction, which is called isthmus, there is a place as it were 


1T take it this is not a description of the salivary ducts, but merely of blood-vessels 


supposed to carry blood bearing salivary ingredients, in the same way that the “milk- 
veins” are still supposed by farmers to subserve milk-formation in cows. 


58 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


between two beginnings, that is, between the trachea and the oesophagus. 
When fluid gathers here it causes the first kind of quinsy; but if partly 
outside and partly inside it causes the second kind; if entirely outside it 
makes the third kind. If fluid gathers between the oesophagus and. the 
spine—for the oesophagus is attached to the spine at the posterior 
aspect—it causes either a gathered swelling of the vertebra from within, 
if the gathering be in the middle, or torsion of the neck if it be lateral. 
Afterward look at the end of the third cartilage, where at its lower and 
inner side the oesophagus is joined to it; you will find there the begin- 
nings of the recurrent nerves, which are also instruments of speech. 
Next to them is another and larger nerve, descending from above, which 
enters the mouth of the stomach, below the diaphragm. ‘This is called 
tornabilis. When you have studied over these things, let a straight 
incision be made as far as the diaphragm. When the ribs are separated 
from the vertebra, all the spiritual organs will be plainly discernible; 
first you will observe the trachea arteria, composed of many round car- 
tilages in the form of rings, attached each to the other; on the inner 
side, to which the oesophagus is attached, the cartilages are bound to 
each other by membranous ligaments. The trachea arteria begins at 
the gullet; it descends the whole length of the neck as far as the lung, 
and divides at the beginning of the lung into two large branches which 
descend through the two great lobes of the lung. You may see clearly 
that the substance of the lung is distinct from the branches of the trachea 
arteria, as we have actually shown to many by dissection. Next observe 
that the lung is composed of delicate substance of slight density; it is 
cavernous, and formed of various lobes, so that the lung when expanded 
may receive air from the outside into these chambers and spaces, and 
may when contracted discharge the gross and vaporous superfluities; 
this you may see by blowing air in through the throat, for the lung is 
thus inflated to a large size. Fluid collecting above its lobes causes peri- 
pneumonia; if such matter were constantly collected within the lung it 
would end in phthisis, from ulceration of the lung tissues. Whenever 
fluid is abundant in the lung, it gathers and causes sansugium, which is 
difficulty of inspiration. When matter occurs about the lung and weighs 
upon it and impedes its dilation, it causes anhelitus, which is difficulty 
of respiration. When matter occupies the passages and inner spaces 
of the lung and resists its constriction, it causes orthomia, which is a 
combination of both difficulties caused by fluids inside and outside. 

Next look between the two great wings of the lung, which are seen 
to comprise other lobes bulging on the posterior side; there you will 
plainly see a passage going to the heart, through which air is drawn 
from the lung to the heart and vaporous superfluities are transmitted 
from the heart to the lung. Clearly visible between these two organs 
there is a large branch of the vena cava ascending through the middle 





Second Salernitan Demonstration 59 


of the diaphragm, which is plainly seen to bifurcate before reaching the 
heart. One of the branches passes upward; I have spoken fully about 
its division and distribution in my gloss on the Aphorisms, when dis- 
cussing the passage “‘Posteriora capitis dolentia,” etc. Another branch 
reaches the heart and there divides; one of its branches courses through 
the substance of the heart, chiefly superficially; the other, entering the 
right auricle from below, takes on another coat and becomes an artery. 
This passes out alongside the left [auricle?] and not through it; there- 
fore, if you find “through the left” it is to be understood “‘alongside the 
left”; it is called adortht. ‘This again divides and the larger branch 
passes downward along the middle of the spine; we shall speak of this 
again at the end of the address. The other branch passes upward and 
divides into various branches, as may be read in the Pantegni. We have 
also referred to it when commenting upon Philaretus. 

Next examine the heart in its position on the left side, bordered 
laterally by the lung, and covered everywhere by a kind of membrane 
which is called the capsule of the heart. An abscess can easily occur in 
the capsule, though in the heart itself never, or with difficulty. Often- 
times abnormal humors gather here in great abundance and cause 
syncope. The substance of the heart is composed of villous and nervous 
parts variously placed, and of firm flesh, being thus arranged because 
of the motions of dilatation and constriction, which are so diverse, 
extensive, and rapid that if the heart were of weak structure it might 
easily be damaged. Its form is that of a pine-cone, broad below and 
pointed above, and hollowed out into various chambers, both to permit 
of ready motility and to avoid angles which might do harm by retaining 
superfluous material. 

Below all these organs is the diaphragm, which begins at the front 
where the chest wall is soft and reaches to the twelfth vertebra, where 
it is attached by cord-like ligaments from all sides; matter which gathers 
above it, in the membrane of the ribs, causes pleurisy. 

Having demonstrated and gone over all this, let us proceed to the 
examination of the digestive organs. Some of these are above the 
diaphragm, namely, the oesophagus and opening of the stomach; the 
others are below it. That which is called os ventris in Latin is stomachus 
in Greek; for stoma is translated “mouth” and cusis “belly”; therefore 
stomachus is the mouth of the stomach, but in Arabic it is called meri. 
Although according to Constantine, meri includes under the one term 
both os ventris and oesophagus, actually it may be divided into these 
two structures. The part which is thicker and reaches about four fingers’ 
breadths above the diaphragm is the os stomachi; the remainder, which 
is more slender and goes all the way to the throat, is the oesophagus; 
the os stomachi is nervous, in order that appetite may develop there as 
a result of frigidity. 


60 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


Now let a deep longitudinal incision be made downward from the 
diaphragm, penetrating to a certain delicate membrane resembling a 
spider’s web, which according to Constantine is called in Arabic siphac 
(not asiphac, as someone, not in a Hippocratic spirit, but from his‘own 
deep and searching knowledge, has recently borne witness, against whom 
I would have written something on this and other points were it not 
that it might be set down to pride). This membrane envelops all the 
nutritive organs and gives off the membrane which incloses the testicles. 

Upon enlarging the incision, the sirbus appears, composed of two 


layers and resembling a net; it almost entirely covers the digestive organs. — 


That part of it which covers the fundus of the stomach is called omentum 
from operio operis, because it covers the fundus of the stomach; but it 
is not the omentum—a certain person to the contrary—but a kind of 
fatty material, commonly called axungia. To tear it out is impossible 
or at least very difficult. 

Next note the fundus of the stomach sloping toward the right, 
embraced by the liver with its five lobes; the stomach is fleshy, in order 
to promote the first digestion. Its lower orifice is called porta both by 
Constantine and by Isaac in his book De urinis, because it remains 
closed until in the necessity of nature food is to be passed out of the 
stomach, but opens when it begins to pass out. 7 

Next observe the intestines, which Constantine in his Pantegni divides 
into six. Of these, the first is not the portanarium (because, as we have 
said, the porta is the inferior opening of the stomach), but the duodenum, 
which has a length of 12 digits. Next to it is the jejunum, so called 
because in the dead animal it is found to contain no fluid; from it, accord- 
ing to Isaac, the purer part of the juice formed in the stomach is drawn 
off through the mesenteric veins; but according to Constantine, this 


juice is drawn from the subtile. Yet these writers are not adverse to 


one another, but diverse; for Isaac means by jejunum that organ which 
begins at the duodenum and extends to the orbus, but Constantine applies 
the term jejunum only to the upper part of that which I have described, 
and distinguishes by the term subtile the lower part, which, as you have 
clearly seen, is more delicate than the upper; thus Constantine divides 
the structure into two parts. This portion of the intestine is the seat of 
strophic pain. The intestinum subtile ends in the orbus, which is also 
called saccus. It is called orbus because it is provided with but one 


opening, through which the contents pass both coming and going; it is — 


also called saccus because it is made like a sack. An excess of bile going 
down to this intestine through the lower fork of the gall-bladder causes 
sickness. At the orbus begins another intestine, which is thick, called 
vleon. The iliac pain caused by retention of coarse refuse and by other 
causes often mentioned in the books is according to Constantine located 
here and not in “‘lateral intestines,” which I have never discovered in 


Second Salernitan Demonstration 61 


animals, nor have I found anything written about them except in the 
recent booklet. Lowest and last of all is the Jongaon or extale or colum. 
This is called extale or longaon because it extends along the spine from 
the lower extremity of the pudendal region. This intestine is the seat 
of colic pain. 

‘Next examine the liver, which is situated in the right hypochondrium 
and is shaped like a Greek sigma. On the upper side, where with its five 
lobes it is joined to the diaphragm, it is convex. If matter gathers here 
it causes dyspnoea and cough, as Galen says, in the passages beginning 
“Per species disniae’’ and “Tussis quaeque fiunt, etc.” On that side 
on which it is attached to the stomach, it is concave, and, as we have 
said, its five lobes surround the stomach. Although the number of lobes 
varies in different animals, there are five in the pig, as I have recently 
shown you, and certainly the same number occur in man. Upon one 
of the larger lobes is the gall-bladder, which gives the appearance of 
having but one duct. There are, however, two ducts, one above the 
other, so adherent and joined together that they seem but one; but while 
you have been watching I have separated them. The one which is upper- 
most appears larger. The larger one lies under the liver and is attached 
to it, and the lesser descends to the intestine, conveying excess bile to 
serve the function of the stomach. But the upper, which is larger, is 
continued to the fundus of the stomach, as I have clearly demonstrated 
to you; for while I had the liver separated thus from the stomach, some- 

body inquired how and where the branch in question continued to the 
stomach, and I made it known while you all looked on. One opening 
was cut in the fundus of the stomach; and in case someone who is anxious 
to criticize seems to find it missing, because it corrodes,’ I say that the 
branch of the gall-duct which goes to the stomach is larger in the pig 
because of the smoothness of the stomach, for the stomach of the pig 
is smooth and not villous. Nature, therefore, in her providence, insti- 
tuted the said branch, in order that food may quickly and without long 
retention by the stomach be brought to a great ebullition and alteration 
by means of mild bile reaching the stomach in large quantity through 
the larger branch. Moreover, the passage by which the liver transmits 
excess bile to the gall-bladder is continued to the larger branch, a fact 
you will easily understand by placing a quill inside the passage; for 
above it goes into the fundus of the stomach and then by somewhat 
transverse course it enters into the substance of the liver from below. 
And note that the stomach of the pig is not villous for two causes, one 
final and the other efficient. The efficient cause is moisture, for the pig 
is moister in its digestive organs than other animals and from this over- 
flowing moisture comes smoothness. The final cause is the nature and 
substance of the pig; for in order that anything may be nourished, it is 


1 Literal translation of an obscure and possibly corrupt clause. 


62 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


necessary that the nutrient material shall be similar to the substance 
which is dissolved from the body. Now, the substance and nature of 
the pig is somewhat cold and moist, and for this reason the pig’s stomach 
ought not to be villous and long retentive of its foods, for these do not 
require a long time for ebullition. 

When these things have been committed to memory observe the 
mesenteric veins in the concavity of the liver, in which is also the lactea 
porta or vena ramosa (which is called lactea because moisture generated 
in the stomach enters it as white as milk, porta because it is like a gate, 
vena ramosa because all the branches of the veins arise from it. You 
will find it about the middle of the concave side of the liver, where there 
is a certain whiteness of those membranes which unite the concave 
aspect of the liver to the fundus of the stomach. Below this in some 
recently killed animals I have seen those little narrow vessels, red and 
full of blood. If they are not visible easily and at once, divide and sepa- 
rate the membranes before mentioned and you will find na such 
vessels, as you have already seen. 

Next you will find the hair-like veins in the convexity of the liver, 
where the vena cava is, in this way: Near the beginning of the vena cava 
break off a bit of the liver substance and rub by beeen your fingers 


and the veins will appear; they are small, round, and narrow like hairs. 


Somebody who wanted to criticize, last year after we had done a dis- 
section, said these were nerves—a statement which we did not refute 
at the time. To confute his opinion we now exhibit, before you all, 
these vessels, red and full of blood, with their beginnings at the origin 
of the vena cava. 

The spleen is oblong and is located in the left hypochondrium; it 
readily presents itself for observation. On its inner side it is attached 
lengthwise to the zirbus; on this side you will see, all the more easily 
because of the whiteness of the zirbus, three vessels full of black biliary 
blood. Since they are colored by these substances they are easily visible 
amid the whiteness. There is one about the middle of the upper end 
of the spleen through which part of the excess black bile is sent to the 
stomach to promote appetite; another about the middle of the lower end 
through which part is sent to the stomach; a third between the others, 
through which the liver drains off excess black bile. In some animals 
these black or red vessels full of black biliary blood do not course as 
described, and therefore are not so easily recognized. Carefully separate 
the zirbus from the substance of the spleen and the channels alone will 
remain because of their toughness; or put a quill in the middle of the 
spleen where it is joined to the zirbus, and insert it lengthwise, and you 
will find these channels. 

When all this has been completed, let the organs which have been 
examined be removed from the pig, so that the rest may be better seen; 


Second Salernitan Demonstration 63 


and first observe the kidneys, situated on either side of the spine, fleshy 
and round. They are venous within, and contain corpuscles after the 
fashion of hairs; and they are hollow, which is the cause of stone. From 
them descend two vessels called emunctoria by physicians, one of which 
descends to each side of the neck of the bladder. Also, there are fleshy 
masses on each side of the spine, called lumbzi. 

In males * the bladder is situated above the rectum (that intestine which, 
as I have said, is called colum) and therefore these organs are much 
bound together and become involved in the same lesions (see Hippocrates, 
the Aphorisms: “Ex strangiria, etc.” and elsewhere “In ano flegmonem 
patientem,” etc.) Stone occurs in the fundus of the bladder, and if it 
reaches the neck it interferes with the passage of urine and causes 
strangury and scumia. Also, there is in the neck of the bladder a certain 
constricting muscle which does not permit the urine to pass without 
volition. Around the fundus are nerves and muscles, which you have 
clearly seen; when animal spirits flow down to these they are compressed 
and contracted, so that urine passes out through the neck of the bladder. 
How the neck of the bladder is continued into the penis you may see by 
putting a long quill through the neck. 

The large artery which descends from the heart, about which I prom- 
ised I would speak, descends along the middle of the spine as far as the 
kidneys and there bifurcates. One branch proceeds to each kidney; and 
from other branches which pass downward two branches are separated, 
one going to each testicle to give it vital spirits. The remainder of the 
descending branches are distributed in various ways to the thighs and 
other members. | 

The venous branches from each side of the spine descend to the inferior 
regions and give off two branches, one of which goes to each testis to 
convey blood. The remaining branches are distributed in diverse fashion 
throughout the lower members; some of them descend to the pudendal 
ring and there undergo multiple division. These give rise to haemor- 
rhoids, as we have made known to you. 

The testicles, which are the instruments of the sperm, are formed of 
glandular, white, soft, and spongy flesh, in order that sperm may be 
generated in them. Each is covered by a membrane, which is derived 
from the siphac. The substance of the sperm before it comes to the 
testicle is received in a certain follicle, in which it is altered and whitened, 
and this membrane is below the kidneys and above the testicles; in some 
animals there is found in the said membrane a great quantity of that 
moisture which is the material of the sperm; in other animals little is 
found, and in others none; and as we have shown you, there are two 
passages, one on each side of the membrane, through which this material 


*I take the word maribus from the corresponding passage in Constantine, instead of 
the unintelligible natibus of the MS. 


64 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


descends to the testicles. Proceeding from the inferior part of the 
testicles are two vessels called seminalia, through which the sperm passes 
from the testicles to the penis, and these vessels are long, white, and 
hard like muscular flesh; they are long, so that the testicular excretion 
may better undergo coction as it passes along, and broad, that the sperm 
may pass quickly from these vessels into the penis and from the penis 
into the female pudenda. In your presence I have incised one of these 
ducts and have shown you the sperm. 

The penis is fleshy, nervous, round, and hollow, beginning at the two 
ossa pectines ; and is formed of two cords placed side by side transversely, 
which is necessary for double cause. First, that it may eject the sperm 
into the vulva; for this reason it is made nervous, in order that by virtue 
of its great sensitiveness there may be intense pleasure even in so 
unseemly an act as emission of the sperm. It is hollow, in order that 
in the presence of ardent desire it may be extended and erected with 
the greatest possible rigidity by means of much spirit in its large cavity 
and in the muscles placed at its sides; and thus it is not readily deflected, 
but may be inserted directly into the vulva. The second necessary cause 
is that it may expel the urine passing through it from the neck of the 
bladder without interruption and without harm, as we demonstrated 
very clearly in the dissection by means of a quill inserted through the 
neck of the bladder. 

The uterus is a hollow and nervous organ placed lengthwise, beginning 
at the umbilicus and descending into the region of the female genitals. 
It is placed above the intestinum rectum, which as we have said is called 
longaon, and the bladder in turn is above the uterus; so that when 
enlarged and distended by the bulk of the foetus the intestine and the 
bladder form as it were cushions and cover it on both sides. It has two 
orifices, one external, which is properly called collum matricis, in which 
coitus is completed ; the other internal, which is properly called os matricis, 
and this closes, according to Hippocrates, after the seventh hour of 
conception, and will not thereafter admit the point of a needle. The 
os itself is nervous and somewhat sensitive, in order that much delectation 
may be caused in intercourse by contact of this organ with the male 
member, and it is moderately firm, in order that it may easily be distended 
for the entrance of the sperm and closed when the sperm is received; 
for if it were not so—if it were over-hard or over-soft—it would be 
inextensible through hardness or for softness could not be shut. The 
matrix is villous inside, that it may better retain the sperm and the foetus 
when conceived. For it is constructed for this special purpose, namely, 
generation of the foetus from sperm conceived within it. The super- 
fluities formed in it are discharged by the menses. There are two large 
cavities in the uterus, one right and the other left, but both of these unite 
in one, which is properly called collum matricis; and there are certain 


Second Salernitan Demonstration 65 


pits in them from which the menstrual flow originates and in which by 
conception of sperm generation occurs as follows: 

Acting upon the mass composed of male and female sperm, the natural 
force and heat cause solidification in the liquid and more subtle parts 
as well as in the superabundant and more consumable grosser elements, 
and alters them into a kind of membrane, just as a crust forms on dough 
when a hot iron is brought near it. Then when the rest of the mass is 
coagulated throughout by similar action of force and heat and becomes 
transmuted into the essence of organs, its swelling bursts the middle of 
the crust. Veins and arteries emerge and are united with the veins and 
arteries of the uterus to form the secundines, or membranes of the foetus; 
and through these veins the four humors, the natural spirit, and the 
vital spirit are borne for nourishment and vivification of the foetus. 
The sources of the veins and arteries of the uterus, to which the veins 
and arteries of the foetus are joined, are called cotyledons. By these 
veins and arteries, as if by ligaments, the foetus is suspended and is 
retained in the uterus, but they are broken when the foetus departs at 
birth, and after the waters have been discharged the midwife ties them 
with a thread at a distance of three or four fingers’ breadths from the 
umbilicus. It often happens that due to pain from the ligature humors 
are drawn thither and cause suppuration of the umbilicus. 

After considering all this, note the two testicles situated at the summit 
of the collum matricis, one right and the other left. You will find them 
by a long straight incision above the collum matricis. The testicles are 
smaller than in men, round, superficially somewhat flattened, glandular, 
and harder than in men. To each of them comes a single vein from 
the kidneys, and they lie under the trumpet-like extremities of the uterus. 
From each testicle there goes a stem-like cord, through which the testicle 
ejects sperm into the spermatic vessel. Observe, moreover, that the 
female organ, which as we have said is called collum matricts, is different 
in different women according to varying times, ages, and natures; for 
in pregnant women it is greater than in the non-pregnant because of the 
enlargement caused by conception; it is never so large* in those who 
have never been pregnant as in those who have borne children; and 
moreover it increases in size during the course of pregnancy. In girls 
and elderly women this organ is smaller than in adults, and in ardent 
women it is larger than in those who are not passionate. 

Concerning the anatomy of the head, we may say that it is of rounded 
form, but tapering before and behind. It is round in order that it may 
not be subject to injury; for if there were angles tending to retain 
superfluities, they would be a source of harm. It is tapering in front 
because of the chamber of imagination and the sensory nerves, which 


1The MSS. have “small” (minores), which is obviously an error; the corresponding 
passage in Constantine reads majores. 


66 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


proceed to the organs of sensation; and it tapers behind because of the 
chamber of memory and the motor nerves, which run to the organ of 
locomotion, and also because the spinal medulla makes its exit at the 
rear. Let the cranium be centrally incised, above and below, downto 
the dura mater; it is found to be rough on its inner surface, hollowed 
out in one part, jagged in the other, and composed of many bones inter- 
locked. The purposes of this arrangement are several; it makes the 
head an efficient outlet of the great ascending vapor which is resolved 
from the triple digestion; it permits freer entrance and exit of the veins 
and arteries of the brain; finally it causes firmer adhesion of the cerebral 
membranes and thus if perchance any one part of the skull is fractured 
the whole need not collapse. Immediately under the cranium there is 
a membrane called dura mater, which protects the brain and pia mater 
from the hardness of the cranium; when this is incised there is found 
another membrane like a network of veins; this is called pia mater and 
protects the brain from the harshness of the dura mater. Under the 
pia mater is the brain, which is white, soft, and chambered. It is made 
white and soft in order that it may fully respond to the diverse qualities 
of sensations. From the forepeak of the brain proceed all the sensory 
nerves, among which is a large one called opticus or ocularis, from 
obtalmo (that is to say, eye), which descends as far as the crystalline 
humor, which is in the middle of the eye. 

The eye is composed of four humors and seven tunics, which are 
recognizable as follows: One tunic, which begins at the center of the 
eye and lines the whole inner surface, is the conjunctiva. The outermost 
superficial layer is the cornea; a bit of it cut off appears bright and clear 
like very translucent horn. When this is cut away still more, a very black 
layer is found beneath it, and this is called uvea; under it is a very 
delicate membrane called tela aranea or pupil. There are three others 
on the cranial side; the first is retina, the next secundine, the third 
sclerotic. 

After you have seen these things, cautiously make a deep incision in 
the center of the eye and compress it slightly at the sides. The first 
humor which emerges, resembling white of egg, is called albugineus. 
After that, a clear, translucent, and rather firm humor escapes; this is 
called crystallinus. The third, which escapes from about the crystalline 
humor, but which is softer than the crystalline, is called vitreous. The 
before-mentioned optic nerve, which descends from the brain to the 
eyes, passes through the center of the eye as far as the crystalline humor; 
through it comes the visible spirit, and as it emerges through the uveal 
tunic and the cornea it is mingled with clear air and transports its rays 
to the body, and thus sight is brought about, as we have said in our 
commentary on Johannitius. 


8 


ANATOMIA MAGISTRI NICOLAI PHYSICI 


[Translated from the Latin text printed by Redeker, 1917] 


As Galen advises, if anyone desires to know the arrangement of the 
internal and external members of the human body, he must undertake 
the practice of anatomy. Therefore let us consider what anatomy is 
and why it is so called, upon what animals it was practiced by the ancients 
and upon which by the modern, and what are their species and divisions. 
As we have it from Galen, anatomy is the correct division of the animal 
members. The word is derived from ana, meaning straight, and thomos, 
meaning division; whence anatomia, that is to say, correct division of 
the members. Among the ancients dissection was practiced upon both 
the living and the dead. The anatomists went to the authorities and 
claimed prisoners condemned to death; they tied their hands and feet, 
and made incisions first in the animal* or major principal members, in 
order to understand fully the arrangement of the pia mater and dura 
mater, and how the nerves arise therefrom. Next they made incisions 
in the spiritual members, in order to learn how the heart is arranged 
and how the nerves, veins, and arteries are interwoven. Afterward they 
examined the nutritive organs and finally the genitalia or subordinate 
principal members. This was the method practiced upon living bodies. 
A different method was used upon the dead; they took a crucified corpse 
and fastened it with rope to a stake in a running stream, with hands 
and feet tied, so that after a time the skin, flesh, fat, and other superflu- 
ous parts were removed by the action of the water and the arrangement 
of the internal members could clearly be observed. Thus Galen, a 
remarkable physician of those times, composed two books of anatomy 
of the dead and one of the living; but such treatment of the human body 
came to be considered inhuman, especially by Catholics, and the practice 
of dissection was transferred to animals. Now, some kinds of animals 
are much like man, especially in outward aspect, for instance, monkeys 
and bears, while others, such as the pig, are similar to man internally; 
and therefore the anatomists chose the latter kind, and in particular 
the female pig, which shows the greatest likeness to the human structure 
in all internal organs, including the uterus. 

Next let us discuss the species and divisions of anatomy; and because 
its classification depends upon members, let us see first what a member 
is. A member is defined thus: It is a part of an animal which is firm and 
solid, composed of similars or dissimilars, and assigned to some special 
function. ‘Part of an animal’ is specified in order to exclude branches, 
which are not parts of animals but of trees, and also to exclude parts 
of wood and stone. Note also that the term “part of an animal’ may 


* See note, p. 54. 
67 


68 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


denote either act or aptitude. If it denotes act, it is accidental, because 
according to this it is a constituent part of the animal; if it denotes 
aptitude it is substantial, because according to this it is a constitutive 
part of the animal; for instance, the hand of the embryo before the 
infusion of life is a constitutive but not a constituent part of the animal. 
The term “firm” is specified to exclude spirit, which is not a firm part. 
“Solid” is specified to exclude humors, which are not solid parts. “Com- 
posed of similars or dissimilars” refers to consimilar and official 
members. The phrase “assigned to a special function” is specified to 
distinguish the idea ‘‘part of an animal” in this sense from mere 
fractional parts such as a third or a quarter of an animal. 

The classification of members is three-fold. First, they are either 
consimilar or official. A consimilar member is one which is of the same 
nature throughout, that is to say, of the same species or complexion. 
The latter phrase is specified to allow for the case of the arteries, which 
consist of two layers, one of which is not of the same species, although 
of the same complexion, because all arteries are of one complexion, for 
every part of an artery is arterial. The same applies to other members. 
The consimilar members are twelve in number, namely, skin, flesh (caro), 
fat, muscle (musculus), lacerta,* bones, nerves, veins, arteries, pears 
tendons, and medulla.’ 

An official member is one which consists of various consimilars, such 
as the hand, which consists of skin, flesh, veins, nerves, and the like. 
Again, some members are principal, some on the other hand are derived 
from the principal members; some have innate powers, others have both 
innate and inflowing powers. The principal members are four, brain, 
heart, liver, and testes. The first three, that is to say, brain, heart, and 
liver, are called principals (principalia), because they maintain the indi- 
vidual in existence. No animal is to be found which has not these three 
members, unless it be the acephalic animal which is said to have no head 
and consequently lacks a brain. The testes are called principal members 
because they maintain the species in existence by material transmission. 
If there were not generative power in the testes, the human species would 
perish, and the same holds good for other species. 

The members derived from the principals are the nerves, veins, arteries, 
and seminal ducts. All the nerves arise directly or indirectly from the 
brain, all the arteries from the heart, all the veins from the liver. The 
seminal ducts, both superior and inferior, arise from the testes; the 
superior are called didymi, or dubious, because it is doubtful whether 
they are derived from the kidneys or the testicles. The inferior are 


ee 


*The author appears to have listed muscular tissue thrice, under caro, musculus, and 
lacerta. 

*I omit from the translation at this point five lines on the eye which are obviously 
interpolated. 





Anatomia Magistri Nicolai Physici 69 


the emunctory vessels, which receive the sperm and carry it through the 
penis into the mint of conception. The members having innate virtues 
are consimilar members, which have four natural forces, namely, appeti- 
tive, digestive, retentive, and expulsive. The appetitive is that which 
digests, the expulsive that which expels. The members having both 
innate and inflowing powers are the official members, which have the 
innate or natural powers of the consimilars of which they are composed. 
They are said to possess also inflowing powers, not meaning that any- 
thing flows from place to place, but because there are’ forces in them 
performing their function, such as the animal force and the spiritual 
force. For example, the animal spirits are carried by the nerves to the 
hand to produce sensation and voluntary motion, the vital force is carried 
by the arteries to confer vitality, and so forth. 

The third classification of the members is as follows: Some members 
are animal, others spiritual, others nutritive, others generative. The 
animal members are the brain, pia mater, dura mater, and the like. They 
are situated above the epiglottis. The spiritual members, namely, the 
heart, the lung, and so forth, are situated between the epiglottis and the 
diaphragm. The nutritive members, namely, the liver, spleen, stomach, 
and the like, are between the diaphragm and the kidneys. The: genital 
members, namely, the testes and seminal vessels, are below the kidneys. 

The brain, being the most important of the animal members, is sur- 
rounded by other structures, either protective, expurgative, or sub- 
servient. It has as protective structures the pia mater, dura mater, 
cranium, and overlying skin. The pia mater immediately surrounds 
the brain with its arterial net, and shields it from the dura mater, which 
is cartillaginous and hard as cardboard. This membrane is called pia 
mater because it surrounds the brain like a devoted mother embracing 
her child. The dura mater guards the brain from the hardness of the 
cranium. The name miringae is also applied to these two membranes. 
The skull and overlying skin protect the brain from external injury. 
As expurgative members the brain has the eyes, ears, nostrils, and 
palate. Through the eyes it is drained of black-biliary humors as rheumy 
discharges; through the ears its biliary humors are discharged as yellow 
fluid; and through the nostrils and palate the brain is purged of phleg- 
matic humors as rascationes (?). The brain has also subservient mem- 
bers, namely, the nerves; for the animal spirits are carried by the nerves 
to all the members, endowing them with sensation, motion, and what not. 

The heart, being the most important of the spiritual members, has 
certain members which are protective, others expurgative, and others 
subservient. As defensive members it has a kind of capsule which 
surrounds it and protects it against the hardness of the ribs; and in 
turn it has the ribs, which protect it against external injuries. For 
expurgative members it has the canals of the lung and the trachea, The 


70 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


pulmonary canals drain it of superfluities engendered by frequent ebul- 
lition of the blood, carrying away the foam to the trachea, by which in 
turn it is carried to the mouth and thus ejected with the sputum. As 
subservient members the heart has the arteries, which take the vital spirits 
and blood which it generates and carry them to the members to give 
them heat and life. 

The liver, which is the most important of the organs of nutrition, is 
provided with certain members which are protective, others expurgative, 
others subservient. As protective members it has the zgirbus and the 
siphac, which envelop it and protect it from the hardness of the ribs; 
in turn the ribs protect it against external injuries. It has several organs 
which drain off the various superfluities formed in it, namely, the gall- 
bladder draining it of excess bile; the spleen draining it of excess black 
bile; the brain, heart, and stomach draining off excess of phlegm; and 
the capillary veins and ureters, which carry off the urine into the bladder. 
As subservient members the liver has the veins, which provide it with 
nutrient blood. 

The testes also, as the most important of the generative organs, are 
provided with certain members which are protective, others expurgative, 
others subservient. As protective members they have the scrotum, the 
little pouch in which they hang, which protects them against the pressure 
of the thighs, and in turn the thighs protect them from external injury. 
As expurgative members they have the emunctory vessels, which carry 
the sperm from the testes by the way of the penis into the mint of con- 
ception. As subservient members they have the didym1, which carry to 
the testes the raw materials from which they generate the sperm. 

The brain, which is the most important among the animal members, 
is, according to some, of hot complexion; according to others, cold; 
according to others, moist; in substance, subtle, thin, and soft; in color, 
white; in constitution, hollow and spongy; in form, oblong with a degree 
of rotundity. It is covered by the scalp and the skull, and is inclosed in 
two membranes. It has much of spirit and much of marrow. It is 
mobile with a twofold mobility and divided into three cells. According 
to Aristotle, it is hot of complexion, as Isaac testifies in his work, De 
dietis universalibus, but according to Hippocrates it is cold (at least 
as he seems to hint in the Prognostics, where he says that cold harms 
the brain, spinal medulla, nerves, arteries, and consimilar members in 
general). All agree that the brain is of moist complexion. In substance 
it is subtle because of its subtle operations; it is thin and soft in order 
that it may easily receive impressions and easily give up what it has 
received. It is white in color, so that it may freely receive impressions 
of different colors, since white is the most sensitive of colors. In consti- 
tution it is hollow and spongy, that it may hold the wastes derived from 
condensation of vapors rising to the brain, for if they were not detained 


oe 


Anatomia Magistri Nicolai Physici 7\ 


there they would impede the circulation of spirits destined to carry out 
the operations of the mind. In form the brain is oblong with a degree 
of rotundity; round that it may be as mobile as possible in performing 
its functions, and so that it will not give room for much waste material ; 
oblong, that its motion may be slow and not impetuous. Its two mem- 
branes are to protect it from the hardness of the skull. It is covered by 
the skull and scalp to protect it from external injury, as mentioned above. 
It has much of spirits and much marrow; much spirits, to provide sensa- 
tion and motion in the members and to carry on the various activities 
of the mind; much marrow, to permit the free perception of diverse 
forms and shapes. It is mobile with a twofold motion, namely, systole 
and diastole, so that these motions may create an upward flow of heat, 
which cleanses the substance of the brain and consumes wastes retained 
in the cavities. It is divided into three cells, the cellula phantastica in 
the anterior part of the head, the cellula logistica in the middle, the 
cellula memorialis in the posterior part. In the cellula phantastica imagi- 
nation is said to have its seat, reason in the cellula logistica, memory in 
the cellula memorialis. The first cell is hot and dry, having much spirit 
and a little marrow; the second is hot and moist, having much spirits 
and much marrow; the third is cold and dry, having little spirits and 
much marrow. The cellula phantastica is hot and dry, having much 
spirits, for the following reason: Just as among the natural forces we 
find the attraction of nutriment by the appetitive force aided by heat 
and dryness, so also among the animal forces there is an attraction 
brought about by similar qualities, namely, heat and dryness. This cell 
has much of spirits, to provide for the carrying on of its functions, and 
it has little marrow, in order not to impede the flow of spirits in appre- 
hending the nature of things. The cellula logistica is hot and moist for 
the following reason: Just as among the natural forces there is digestion 
of what has been received, and separation of the purities from impurities 
of the diet, by the action of heat and moisture, so also among the func- 
tions of the mind there is a property of discrimination brought about 
by heat and moisture, by which things received into the cellula phan- 
tastica are distinguished, for instance, the true from the false, the honest 
from the dishonest, merriment from sobriety, and other contrasting 
things. It has much of spirits, in order that there may be full discrimi- 
nation of ideas received; it has much marrow, in order that the spirits 
depleted by these subtle operations may be replenished. The cellula 
memorialis is cold and dry, for the following reason: Just as among the 
natural functions, there is first an attraction of nutriment by heat 
and dryness, and digestion by heat and moisture, and then there must 
be retention by means of cold and dryness; so likewise among the func- 
tions of the mind, besides the attraction of ideas to the cellula phantastica 
by heat and dryness, and the separation of the true from the false, and 


72 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


so forth, in the cellula logistica, by heat and moisture, there must be also 
retention, and this is carried out in the cellula memorialis by the action 
of cold and dryness. For this reason that cell is called “treasure house 
of the memory.” It has much marrow, that it may be easily stamped 
with the impressions of diverse ideas, but not much spirits, which might 
flow about and remove the impressions of ideas. On account of the 
three divisions of the brain the ancient philosophers called it the temple 
of the spirit, for the ancients had three chambers in their temples, first 
the vestibulum, then the consistorium, finally the apotheca. In the first 
the declarations were made in law-cases; in the second the statements 
were sifted; in the third final sentence was laid down. The ancients 
said that the same processes occur in the temple of the spirit, that is, the 
brain. First we gather ideas into the cellula phantastica, in the second 
cell we think them over, in the third we lay down our thoughts; that is, 
we commit to memory. 

Next come the nerves. Of these, some are sensory, others motor. 
The sensory nerves are those which serve sensation chiefly, serving 
motion only secondarily. The motor nerves act conversely. According to 
some authorities, all the sensory nerves originate from the cellula phan- 
tastica, the motor from the cellula memorialis. There are also five kinds 
of sensory nerves, which are classified according to the operations of 
the five senses, namely, sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. Two 
nerves arise from the cellula phantastica and cross in the middle of the 
forehead, one of them passing to the pupil of the right eye, the other 
to the left. Through these nerves visual spirits are conveyed to the 
pupils. How vision is produced will be described elsewhere. The nerve 
in question is called the optic nerve, from the Greek word ‘‘optos”’ which 
signifies visus in Latin. Two other nerves arise from the cellula phan- 
tastica, one of which goes to the right ear, the other to the left; through 
these auditory spirits are conveyed to the petrosal region. These nerves 
are called ophthalmici or postici," because they arise in the posterior part 
of the cellula phantastica. Another nerve arising from the cellula phan- 
tastica passes to the caruncles in the nose, which are spongy and formed 
like paps. Through these nerves olfactory spirits are borne to the 
caruncles. A gustatory nerve also arises from the same cell . . .” which 
pass through the neck, to the right and left arms. The one which goes 
to the right arm is prolonged to the hand and divides to enter each of 
the five digits. A branch of this nerve, beginning in the right arm, 
goes on to the right foot and enters the five digits, more or less, which 
are upon the foot. You may consider that the same is true of the nerves 
of the left side. 

* As Redeker points out, a similar confusion of terms exists in several of the Ricardus 


manuscripts and in Schwarz’s variant of “Copho.” 
* There seems to be an omission here. 


é 


o 


Anatomia Magistri Nicolai Physict 73 


Having discussed the sensory nerves, we now take up the motor nerves. 
The motor nerves are those which primarily serve the motor function, 
only secondarily assisting in sensation, as, for instance, that of touch. 
All the motor nerves originate from the cellula memoralis, just as the 
sensory nerves arise from the cellula phantastica, although some say that 
three species of sensory nerves, namely, sensory, gustatory, and olfactory, 
arise from the cellula phantastica, and two other species, auditory and 
tactile, arise from the posterior part. In the same way they say that 
some motor nerves, namely, those of the eyebrows and eyelids, arise from 
the anterior part, while others, namely, the motor nerves of the ears, lips, 
and other regions, arise from the posterior part. This seems, indeed, 
to be the meaning of Galen in the Tegmui, where he says: “Ipsa quoque 
pars anterior pluribus autem operativis, quem posterior pars pluribus 
operativis, paucioribus autem sensibilibus.’ Two other nerves arise 
from the posterior part, one of which goes to the right jaw, the other 
to the left. The one which goes to the right traverses the upper jaw 
and enters the lower and the one which goes to the left does the same. 
It should be remarked that in every kind of animal that jaw in which 
the motor nerve ends is the larger, except in the crocodile, in which the 
contrary condition occurs. 

The posterior part of the cranium is shaped like a Greek lambda, and 
is called commissura from com and muitto, because the cranium and spine 
are put together or joined there. 

The spine consists of 18 vertebrae, of which there are 6 cervical and 
12 dorsal. The vertebre are all perforated to allow for descent of the 
medulla or cord. The cord arises from the brain and is protected by 
two membranes, namely, pia mater and dura mater, and is formed like 
a horse’s tail or like a willow switch. From the commissure of the 
cranium certain nerves originate which extend to the root of the tongue 
and are called motor nerves of the tongue, because they move the tongue 
in mastication and also in the production of speech, although the voice 
is not actually generated there, but these nerves by their motion modify 
the voice. Likewise, certain other nerves arise from the same commis- 
sure and pass through the whole length of the neck to the heart and 
surround the sides of the heart; by means of these, animal spirits are 
carried to the heart to produce the emotions, such as anger, joy, sadness, 
and the like, for all the operations of the mind and soul originate in the 
brain and terminate in the heart. Still other nerves begin in the same 
commissure and pass through the whole length of the neck to the upper 
orifice of the stomach, where they terminate; by these, animal spirits 
are borne to produce appetite, for appetite is composed of two forces, 


namely, animal force and simple natural or appetitive force, which 


flourishes by the action of warmth and dryness. Warmth dissolves and 
resolves superfluities and dryness consumes them. When the stomach 


74 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


perceives its own emptiness, its upper parts touch each other, and thus 
arises the desire to eat, as a result of tactile sense and of appetite; or, 
to put it in other words, by the action of animal force and of appetitive 
force. Other nerves arise from the sixth dorsal vertebra, counting from 
the upper end, that is, the neck, and these go to the lung and pass through 
the middle of the pulmonary region; thereafter they turn back and reach 
the tongue, whence they are called nervt reversivi. In some people they 
terminate at the proper distance, in some they fall short, in others they 
go too far. Those in whom they end at the proper distance are able to 
form all sounds of the voice; those in whom the nerves are too short 
can not produce the letter 7 and are said to be tongue-tied; those in whom 
the nerves are too long can not form the letter s and are said to lisp. 

Also, other nerves arise from the same vertebra and go to the sternum, 
where they become superficial and connect the sternum with the spine, 
in order to bring about inspiration and respiration. Still other nerves 
arising from the same vertebra pass by way of the middle ribs to the 
inner side of the sternum, where they join the flesh to form a muscle 
by which the air is gently expelled, as in laughing; but other nerves 
arising from the same vertebra go as far as the trachea or the lower part 
of the throat, and join with flesh to form a muscle by which air is forcibly 
expelled, as in coughing. From the same vertebra arise nerves which 
pass to the upper part of the throat and join with flesh to form a muscle 
by which vocal sounds are produced, not definite words, but merely 
sounds. To form actual words, nine instruments are required, which 
are called by the authors “the nine muses.” These are the lung, pulmo- 
nary canals, trachea, epiglottis, tongue, palate, the two upper and two 
lower incisor teeth, and the two lips. From the junction of the dorsal 
and cervical spine two nerves originate, one of which goes into the right 
arm, the other into the left; they descend to the hands and there divide 
into five twigs, one for each finger. Through these branches animal 
spirits are borne, primarily to produce motion, but secondarily to cause 
sensation. 

At this point it should be noted for the sake of clearness that there are 
in the human body two humeri, two homoplate, two spatule, two 
metafrenones, two sides, two thoraces, and the sternum. The humerus 
is the highest part (of the arm) next to the dorsal spine. The homoplata 
is a broad bone in the shoulder. It is called homoplata from homos, 
meaning bone, and platon, which means broad; from the same word we 
get also platea, a broad way, and plato, having a broad aspect. The 
spatula consists of the shoulder and the homoplata. The metafrenones 
are certain bones in the back which reach as far laterally as the backbone 
and as far upward as the thoraces. One is in the right side, the other 
in the left. The thoraces are those anterior parts which contain the 
nipples; they extend to the subcinctorium. The right side is opposite to 





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Anatomia Magistri Nicolai Physici 75 


the left side; the sternum is opposite to the backbone; the right thorax 
is opposite to the right metafrenon (and likewise on the left). The word 
metafrenon comes from meta, next to, and frenum, bit; it signifies 
therefore “next to the bit,” or next to the diaphragm. Just as a bit 
separates the upper part of a horse’s mouth from the lower, so the 
diaphragm divides the spiritual from the nutritive members. Notice 
that the thoraces are sometimes larger than the metafrenones and some- 
times smaller; the cause of this is given by Galen in the Tegni. 

Several nerves arise from the cervical cord and leave the spine to enter 
the various regions mentioned above and the internal organs, namely, 
the stomach, liver, and the like, bearing animal spirits primarily to pro- 
duce motion in them, and secondarily to produce tactile sensation. Two 
nerves arise at the end of the dorsal spine, one of which passes to the 
right leg and the other to the left; they descend the whole length of the 
thighs and lower legs into the feet and there divide according to the 
number of the toes. Through these nerves animal spirits are borne to 
produce motion and sensation. Other nerves arise from the spinal cord 
and pass through the spine to reach the chest and the perineum. The 
union of these nerves forms the penis in the male sex, and therefore this 
organ is extremely sensitive and has even been called by some cauda 
nervorum. In the female sex a similar concourse of nerves forms the 
foramen, or gateway, or vagina. Another nerve arising from the spinal 
cord joins the vertebrum with the scia and this is called ligamentum, or 
tenuntos, or zementis (different people give it different names) ; some- 
times this nerve becomes elongated and then the vertebrum is loosened 
from the scia and sometimes the nerve breaks suddenly and gives rise 
to sciatic pain. The scia is a certain hollow bone, and the vertebrum a 
round bone seated in the hollow of the former, called vertebrum from 
verto, to turn, because when a person moves it usually turns. 

It is usual at this point to classify the tissues according to their hard- 
ness. Fat is the softest tissue, flesh is next, then skin, then the sensory 
nerves, then the motor nerves; after them comes that ligament or tenuntos 
which we have just mentioned, then cartilage, and finally bone. 

Having described the animal members, let us proceed to the spiritual 
members, first discussing the heart, which is the most important among 
them. The heart is hot and dry in complexion, solid and hard in sub- 
stance, dense in constitution, conical in form; with a pointed apex below 
and a broad base above; hollow inside; having two auricles, right and 
left; motile with a twofold motion; situated in the middle of the body, 
and surrounded by a capsule. It is hot in complexion, to increase its 
motion, for hot things move swiftly, cold things slowly. It is dry 


because by means of its dryness it is able to consume waste products. 


It is hard and solid in substance and dense in constitution for one single 
reason, namely, that it may the better resist the continual and frequent 


76 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


ebullition of the blood. It is shaped like a pine-cone, pointed below and 
broad above, for the following reason: We know that fire tends to rise 
in the shape of a cone, because it is hot and dry, and the same effect 
must take place in the heart and every fiery organ. It must be explained, 
however, that the apex of the heart is turned downward and therefore 
the broad part is above, because the heart receives its nutriment from 
the brain, which is (so to speak) the root of all the organs. Just as a 
tree receives nourishment from the root below it, so do the heart and 
other organs receive nutriment from the parts above. For this reason 
man has not inaptly been compared to a tree upside down. Inside, the 
heart is hollow, to provide for ebullition of the blood and generation 
of the vital spirits. It is inclosed in a capsule, for the sake of protection 
from the hardness of the ribs. It is motile with a twofold motion, 
namely, diastole and systole; note that diastole, elevatio, and thesis all 
have the same meaning, while systole is identical with depressio and 
artheos or arsis. There is a twofold cause of diastole of the heart, that 
is to say, an efficient and a final cause. The efficient cause is the inspira- 
tion and expiration of vital spirits and air; the final cause is the need 
of resting the heart and of renewing the vital spirits. There is also a 
twofold cause of systole. The efficient cause is the heart’s heaviness or 
weight, for everything heavy tends toward its center; the final cause is 
the need of ejecting wastes produced by ebullition. The heart is placed 
in the center of the body for the same reason for which the sun is placed 
in the center of the world, namely, that its heat may be evenly distributed 
to all the lands; and accordingly the heart is so placed that its heat may 
be evenly distributed to all members. The heart has two auricles, right 
and left, so that the vena cava entering the right and leaving the left 
auricle may become arterial, for the vena cava is made up of delicate 
venules which come from the vena ramosa. 

The vena cava is so called either because it gathers much nutriment 
or because it passes near several hollow organs such as the heart, lung, 
pulmonary canals, and trachea. This vein, as it egresses from the dome 
of the liver, divides into two branches, one of which goes upward and 
the other downward. The one which courses upward passes through 
the middle of the diaphragm and enters the right auricle of the heart; 
and then leaving the heart via the left auricle it takes on a new layer 
derived from the substance of the heart and is called the aorta, because 
all arteries arise from it. Note that the difference between a vein and 
an artery is that the vein has one coat, the artery two. As the aorta 
leaves the left auricle it divides into two branches, one of which goes 
upward, the other downward. The one which goes downward descends 
to the stomach, liver, the dome of the liver, the kidneys, and to the legs, 
where it finally reaches the feet and divides into small branches to each 
digit. Through this artery vital spirits and arterial blood are borne to 


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Anatomia Magistri Nicolai Physict 77 


produce heat and life in the lower members. The branch which goes 
upward divides into one smaller and two larger branches. The smaller 
branch passes directly through the left arm to the hand, where it is 
subdivided into branches for the fingers in order to carry heat and vital 
spirits. On account of the shorter distance and more direct course the 
pulse is felt more clearly in the left than in the right hand. One of the 
other two branches passes by way of the lung and the right arm to carry 
vital spirits into the hand; because of the greater distance and less direct 
course the pulse is not so clearly felt in the right arm. The third branch 
enters into the substance of the lung, where it subdivides into numerous 
branches, of which the pulmonary canals are formed, and through these 
branches occur the inspiration and expiration of air and the discharge 
of wastes generated in the heart. The arteries and pulmonary canals 
unite as they leave the lung, forming the trachea, through which the 
wastes withdrawn from the heart by the canals are freely discharged. 
There are also other arteries which pass upward in the neck alongside 
the trachea and through the temples to the brain. Some say that they 
enter the substance of the brain, others that they form an arterial net 
which closely surrounds the brain and supplies the pia mater and dura 
mater. 

The lung is a member firm and moist in complexion, soft and delicate 
in substance, hollow and spongy in constitution, pennate in form, and 
motile with a twofold motion. It is firm and moist, in order to with- 
stand the warmth of the heart and so that no lesion may be caused by 
the heat of its own motion. It is soft and delicate in substance, so that 
it may be adapted to motion. It is hollow in structure in order that 
inspired air may be retained for cooling the heart and renewing the vital 
spirits. It is pennate in form, with seven lobes, of which the upper 
four are necessary to life, for if they are perforated by rheumy fluid 
from above the patient dies. The three lower lobes are less necessary 
to life, since the patient does not quickly die if they are perforated by 
fluid through stillicidium. The lung moves with a twofold motion, by 
which in diastole there is expulsion of air into the heart and in systole 
there is a discharge of wastes; and moreover, by this motion the lung 
is enabled to flagellate the heart at frequent intervals, thereby cooling 
it, and therefore it is called the flail of the heart. 

The trachea is an organ which is firm and dry in complexion, hard 
and solid in substance, dense in constitution, long.and round in shape. 
It arises in the lung and terminates at the base of the tongue. It is firm 
and dry of complexion, because firmness and dryness have a motion 
constricting the parts (to the brain)* and drying them and thus con- 
solidating them, by which it can better resist external injury. In sub- 
stance it is hard and solid, and in constitution it is dense, on account 
of the above-mentioned qualities and for the same reason. In form it is 


1 Literal version of an obscure and probably corrupt passage. 


78 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


long and round. It is round because if it had angles it would retain waste 
matter and this would do harm. It is long and tubular in order that air 
may run freely to the spiritual organs and that wastes gathered there 
may be expelled. It arises in the lung for reasons described in the. last 
paragraph, and it ends at the base of the tongue in order that the air 
which it carries may be utilized by the nine vocal organs in producing 
the voice. 

The uvula is an organ situated in the palate above the trachea. It is 
red in color, broad above, and conical or pointed below. It is called 
uvula because it is shaped like an udder. It is the only outlet of the 
brain having an opening by which it serves the animal and spiritual 
members. It is wide above and narrow below; wide above in order 
that it may freely receive the excess phlegm, and narrow below in order 
that the phlegm may not flow suddenly into the spiritual organs and 
thus cause harm. The uvula has an opening continuous with the nostrils, 
by means of which people sometimes for a joke put a thread in the nose 
and spit it out from the mouth. 

There is also another organ, called epiglottis, which acts in conjunction 
with the trachea and oesophagus, and is made in the shape of a finger. 
When food or drink is taken into the oesophagus, the epiglottis opens 
and bends toward the trachea and closes it. It does the opposite when one 
speaks, so that if a person happens to speak while eating, something will 
run down his trachea and impede the inspiration and expiration of air and 
must be gotten out the same way; otherwise the patient would suffocate. 

There are also organs called glands, some large, others small, others 
medium-sized. If rheumy humor reaches the larger glands it causes a 
disease called branchus gaballina. If it flows to the smaller it causes 
branchus minor. If it flows to the medium-sized glands, it causes 
scrofula, which is so termed because almost invariably more than one 
gland becomes enlarged, just as a pig (scropha) almost always gives 
birth to more than one foetus. 

Having discussed the spiritual members, let us speak next of the 
organs of nutrition, and first of the liver, which is the most important. 
But since the liver has subservient members, such as the mouth, oesopha- 
gus, and stomach, we should deal first with these. The mouth acts in 
the manner of a mill. The teeth represent the mill-stones and the tongue 
plays the part of the miller, for just as grain is received into a mill, so 
is food taken into the mouth; and in the same way that the grain is 
cast by the hand of the miller under the grindstones (molares) to be 
ground, so is food cast by the tongue beneath the molar teeth to be masti- 
cated. Note that the teeth are of different kinds. There are 24 teeth 
called maxillares or molars, 12 on one side, 12 on the other, 6 above 
and 6 below. There are other teeth called canines, 8 in number, 4 below, 
4 above; and thus altogether there are 36 teeth in the mouth. 





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Anatomia Magistri Nicolat Physict io 


The oesophagus is fleshy inside and membranous outside; it is long, 
round, and tubular, beginning at the base of the tongue and ending at 
the upper orifice of the stomach, and it is the pathway of food and 
drink. It is called oesophagus from ysos, which means “equal,” and 
phagin, which means “‘to eat,” for it receives food and drink equally 
and transports them to the superior orifice of the stomach. 

The stomach is cold and dry in complexion, hard and solid in sub- 
stance, dense in constitution, long but more or less rounded in form, 
hollow and villous inside, smooth and even outside. It is formed of 
two layers and has two openings, one below and one above. In com- 
plexion it is cold and dry, because frigidity and dryness are concen- 
trating qualities and reduce parts to solidity. The stomach is hard and 
solid and dense in constitution, so that it may retain the food and drink 
while the first digestion is performed. It is long and rounded in shape, 
because if it were markedly cavernous it would tend to retain undigested 
food. It is villous inside, in order that what is taken into it may not 
be discharged at once, but will be held and digested, and what is necessary 
will be retained. It is hollow in order that it may better contain food 
and drink. It is formed of two layers, so that if one breaks from over- 
distention, the other will still hold. It has two openings, one below, the 
other above. The lower opening is cavernous and is directed toward 
the liver. The upper is nervous and is turned toward the heart. The 
lower orifice is fleshy, in order that digestion may profit by the qualities 
there located, because flesh is warm and moist, and warmth and moisture 
greatly aid digestion. It has the liver below it like a fire underneath a 
caldron; and thus the stomach is like a kettle of food, the gall-bladder 
is the cook, and the liver is the fire. The upper orifice is nervous, so 
that it may feel its emptiness and become hungry, and when full it may 
perceive its repletion and cease to hunger. The heart is above it in order 
that it may aid digestion. We usually speak of a triple digestion, of 
which the first step is the taking-in of food and drink. The second is 
the liquefaction of the juice in the liver, where the generation of the 
four humors takes place; and the third is that of the blood in the veins, 
by which ultimately flesh is created where flesh is needed, bone where 
bone is needed, and so forth. 

In the human body there are six intestines. The first is called duo- 
denum, the second jejunum, the third orbus or monoculus or saccus (all 
these words have the same meaning), the fourth.ileum, the fifth colon, 
the sixth longaon. The first is called duodenum because it is as long 
as 12 fingers’ breadths, the second is called jejunum because in dead 
animals it is found empty; the next part is called orbus because of its 


one aperture, and monoculus for the same reason; it is also called saccus, 


because like a bag it has but one opening. The ileum takes its name from 
yle, which means ‘“‘confusion.” because that intestine is formed of com- 


80 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


plex tangled coils. This intestine is the seat of iliac passion. The colon 
is called “colander” because the feces are strained there; it is the seat 
of colic passion. The longaon is so called because it is attached along 
the spine. It terminates at the anus, and thus in a certain chapter it is 
called ‘exit anus.”” But note that there is really but one intestine, bearing 
different names in its different parts. 

There are eight mesenteric veins, of which the first arises in the fundus 
of the stomach, the second from the pylorus, the third from the duo- 
denum, and five others from the jejunum. These eight veins unite near 
the hilum of the liver to form a large vein called vena ramosa or lactea 
porta. The term vena ramosa is conventional rather than descriptive, 
however, just as the trachea arteria is not arterial in fact but in name 
only. 

Food is taken into the mouth and by aid of the tongue is masticated 
between the teeth; then it is carried by the oesophagus into the stomach. 
There it is modified by the action of heat and is changed into another 
essence. After this, the purer portion is partly retained by the stomach 
for its own nourishment, and the rest is carried to the hilum of the liver 
by that mesenteric vein which is connected to the fundus of the stomach. 
The impure portion descends to the pylorus and is again separated into 
pure and impure. The pure portion is in part carried to the hilum of 
the liver. The impure portion descends to the duodenum and there it 
is further modified and the pure separated from the impure, as we have 
described before. The impure portion is carried to the jejunum and 
there the first digestion, which began in the stomach, is fully completed, 
the pure nutriment being carried to the hilum by the five veins of the 
jejunum. The impure remainder passes through the other intestines 
and is at length rejected through the anus. The pure juice thus produced 
by digestion and carried by the mesenteric veins is called succositas 
tisanaria, from “ptisane,’ or barley-water, because the juice resembles 
such a decoction in color. The mesenteric veins are so called from the 
word media, because it is by their mediation that this juice is carried to 
the hilum of the liver; or else the derivation is from mensa, because the 
juice is carried by them to the hilum as if to a table, so that the second 
digestion may be performed there and the four humors generated. 

Opinions differ as to the generation of the four humors. Some say 
that the blood alone is generated, in form as well as substance, in the 
liver; the other humors are generated there in substance, but in other 
places as to form. If it be asked why the blood alone is generated there 
in form as well as in substance, it must be answered thus: the blood 
alone is the offspring, guardian, and conservator of nature, for it nour- 
ishes, guards, conserves, and repairs the members. The blood has also 
favorable qualities, such as fatness and moistness, which promote diges- 
tion, and for this reason it is retained in the liver long enough to be 


Anatomia Magistri Nicolai Physici 81 


created in substance and in form. The bile, however, is made there in 
substance only, because, due to its bitterness and irritating qualities, it 
is transported through its ducts to the gall-bladder and there receives 
its special characteristics; for the bile is not necessary to the members, 
except in so far as it promotes appetite, which is increased by heat and 
dryness. On account of this burning heat and destructive dryness, the 
bile is carried away from the delicate tissues of the liver, in order that 
it may not harm them. The black bile, which is of harmful nature 
because of its injurious qualities and coarseness, which are hurtful to 
the delicate substance of the liver, is carried by its ducts to the spleen 
and there undergoes specific differentiation; and it also is unnecessary 
to the members, except as it promotes retention by the effect of its cold- 
ness and dryness. The phlegm, on account of its coldness, which causes 
indigestion, is driven to the stomach, to the lung, to the brain, and to 
the joints, and there receives its specific differentiation; nor is it neces- 
sary to the members, except as regards the expulsive virtue with which 
it is endowed by its coldness and moisture. Those who -say that the 
humors are generated in the liver in substance, but elsewhere in form, 
are willing to confirm the authority of Isaac and Theophilus. Isaac 
says in his Particular Diets, regarding the generation of humors, ‘“‘the 
lung takes over what is mild and pure, but what is of injurious nature 
is taken up by the spleen.” Theophilus says: “After the formation and 
perturbation of blood therein, the lighter parts tend upward, but the red 
bile is taken through the bile-ducts to the gall-bladder.” Others hold 
that the four humors are generated in the liver both in substance and 
in form. When the humors are generated in the liver, they immediately 
receive substance and form; but although they can be seen, their form 
can not be discerned on account of mixture and confusion. When, for 
instance, the bile is transported to its place in the gall-bladder, it does 
not there receive any form or special differentiation, but the form which 
it had already received in the liver at last becomes manifest. The same 
explanation holds good for the other humors. 

The same opinions are held about the urine. Some say that it is 
generated, in substance, in the liver, but being urinous and harmful to 
the liver, it is immediately taken by the capillary veins to the vena chilis, 
and thence to the kidneys, where it drains through the ureters into the 
bladder and there receives its specific differentiation. Others say, on 
the contrary, that it is generated in form as well as in substance in the 
liver, as we have said above with regard to the humors. 

The liver is an organ which is warm and moist in complexion, delicate 
and soft in substance, slight and spongy in composition, and lobate in 
form, having five lobes. It is hollow within, but outwardly convex or 
crested, and formed like a letter C. It is protected by a capsule. It is 
warm and moist in complexion on account of the second digestion, which 


82 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


is performed in it. It is delicate and soft because there is much blood 
in its substance. In composition it is light and spongy, so that it may 
retain blood to promote nourishment of the body. In form it is lobate, 
so that its lobes may embrace the stomach and by their warmth aid the 
first digestion. It is hollow within, where the succositas tisanaria is 
collected, in order that the four humors may be formed there. It is 
shaped like a letter C, or like the new moon; and the hilum of the liver 
is said to lie in the curvature. It is protected by a capsule which serves 
to guard it from the hardness of the ribs. It is the spiritual instrument 
of the second digestion, because the second digestion is performed in it. 

Note also that the eight mesenteric veins unite at the hilum of the 
liver and form a large vein, called vena ramosa, for the reason (as Galen 
says in the Pantegni) that before leaving the liver it 1s divided into five 
branches which go separately into individual lobes of the liver. Note 
also that vena ramosa is a conventional term, just as the trachea is 
nominally called trachea arteria. From the vena ramosa there arise 
certain five venules like hairs, which are called capillary veins, and which 
leave via the hilum of the liver. As they leave they unite and form 
the vena chilis, which lies close to the dorsal spine from above downward. 
It is called vena chilis from kilos, which means “juice.” Through this 
vein juice is borne to the entire body. The vena chilis breaks up into 
three branches, two small and one large. The two smaller reach and 
enter the kidneys, to which they carry the urine with the blood. The 
blood which they carry there remains as nourishment for the kidneys, 
while the urine is drained to the bladder through other veins called 
ureters, or veins of the urine. Thereafter the urine passes down out 
of the bladder through the penis and is discharged. Note also that the 
nutritive blood and animal spirits are borne by all the veins generally. 
The larger branch of the vena chilis goes to individual members, includ- 
ing the stomach, heart, brain, and the lower members. ‘Two veins called 
varice also arise from the vena cava; they go down as far as the backs 
of the knees and when they are cut obliquely they make men varicose, 
that is, shut. From the vena chilis arise two other veins called salva- 
telle, one of which goes to the right foot, the other to the left, termi- 
nating between the little toe and the next adjacent; when they are incised 
they purge away black-biliary blood. Four other veins called saphene 
arise from the vena chilis, two going to the right leg and two to the 
left, down to the soles of the foot. One is mesial, and the other lateral. 
When the inner one is bled it relieves pains of the stomach, kidneys, 
intestines, and uterus. Bleeding of the outer one relieves sciatica. Five 
other veins called haemorrhoide arise from the same vein and terminate 
about the pudendum; through these the black-biliary blood flows, just 
as the menstrual blood flows through the uterus. 





Ps 


Anatomia Magistri Nicolai Physici 83 


A number of slender veins like hairs arise from the vena ramosa and 
leave by way of the crest of the liver. As they go out they unite and 
form a large vein called vena cava. This vein, as mentioned above, 
divides into two veins, one of which goes upward, the other downward. 
The one which goes upward divides into two branches, one of which 
passes from below into the right auricle of the heart, as we said when 
we discussed the spiritual organs. The second and remaining branch 
is divided into numerous branches, two of which pass to the upper arms, 
one to the right and the other to the left. The one which goes to the 
right divides into several branches, some of which ascend through the 
neck and temples to the brain; others pass down the arm into the hand. 

Three of these latter are important, namely, the cephalic, median, and 
hepatic. The cephalic vein is situated in the upper part of the arm; it 
is called cephalic from cepha, which means “head,” because it is incised 
for pain in the head. The median is so called because it is midway 
between the cephalic and hepatic; incision of this vein relieves pains of 
the whole body. The hepatic, or basilic, or fundamentalis is so called 
because it arises from the foundation of all veins, that is, the liver. 
The same statements apply to the corresponding veins of the left arm. 

Another vein arises from the vena cava, crossing the middle of the 
lung and passing to the right forearm. This when incised relieves 
asthma and other disorders of the lung. Two veins arising from the 
same vein go via the spleen as far as the axille and are called vene 
titttlares, because when they are cut across they cause a man to die in a 
fit of laughter. There are two other veins which pass through the arms 
and terminate between the little finger and the middle finger. These 
are called salvatelle, and incision of these is good for quartan fever, 
mania, and melancholia. Two other veins arising from the vena cava 
go to the ear and are called parotides, from para, which means “near,” 
and otis, which signifies the organ of hearing, for they terminate near 
the organ of hearing and thus reach the optic (!) or auditory nerve. 
For this reason overdistention of these veins leads to compression and 
stoppage of the optic nerve and thus causes deafness; but such deafness 
is cured by flow of blood from the nose. From the same vein certain 
veins arise and are distributed to the brain, which are called “juveniles,” 
because, as Hippocrates says, if they are cut a man can no longer produce 
sperm. Other veins arising from the vena cava ascend laterally along 
the trachea and are called vene organice, or pneumatice, for when 
anyone tries to sing they become dilated and can be seen; and if one 
becomes hoarse, drainage of humors through these veins clears up the 
hoarseness. Note that all these veins unite at the brain, and in conjunc- 
tion with the arteries form an arterial net, which immediately surrounds 
the brain. 


84 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


The vena cava, as we said before, divides into two branches as it 
leaves the liver, one of which goes upward, the other downward. The 
one which goes downward divides into numerous branches, some of 
which go to the stomach, others to the intestines, others to the kidneys, 
others to the legs, just as we said of the vena chilis. Through these 
veins nutritive blood and animal spirits are carried to nourish and 
comfort the members. 

All the foregoing veins are found in both sexes; but there is another 
vein which is found only in women, called kiveris vena, that is, the 
female vein. This vein begins in the liver, and as it leaves it divides 
into two branches, one of which goes upward, the other downward. The 
one which goes downward divides into two branches, one of which 
enters the right horn of the uterus, the other the left; and through these 
branches the menstrual blood is carried into the uterus, to be discharged 
later through the portal of the uterus. The branch which goes upward 
divides into two branches, one of which goes to the right breast, the 
other to the left. When the os uteri closes after conception, the menstrual 
blood is retained and part of it is transported by these veins to the 
breasts, where it is modified and transsubstantiated into the essence of 
the milk, which provident ministering nature provides and prepares as 
nutriment for the foetus when it sees the light. The remainder of the 
menstrual blood is taken to nourish the foetus while it is in the maternal 
uterus. 

Enough has now been said about the more important and better-known 
veins, but there are also in the human body infinite numbers of veins 
which are unknown except to God alone, to whom nothing is unknown. 
Note that the blood does not nourish while it is in the veins, but oozes 
through the veins into the fountains. The fountains are hollow and 
petrous regions in the body where the blood is modified by the action 
of natural heat; here the third digestion is carried on and the bony 
materials are changed (in substance and in form) into bone, the fleshy 
into flesh, skin-forming substance into skin, and so forth. 

Next in order are the genital organs, among which the testes come 
first, as the most important. The testes are hot and moist in complexion, 
delicate and soft in substance, slight and spongy in composition, round 
and oblong in form. In men they are large, in women small. In both 
sexes they generate sperm. They are situated in the oscheum or testicular 
pouch. They are hot and moist in complexion because these qualities 
favor the digestive force, which assists the formation of sperm. The 
reasons for their substance, composition, and so forth can be deduced 
from what has been said above. The testes have an attachment to certain 
nerves which bifurcate; these are called didymi, or “doubtful,” because 
it is doubtful whether they arise from the testes or from the girbus or 
stphac, into which they pass. The siphac or zirbus is a membrane which 


ee 


> oe 


ee 


Py 


Anatomia Magistri Nicolai Physict 85 


surrounds the intestines; and when it breaks the intestines drop into 
the scrotum and this is the cause of rupture. Sometimes it happens 
that one or both testes are drawn up by the nerves by which they are 
bound to the intestines, and thus they do not appear in the scrotum. 
There are other genital organs called seminal ducts, which are between 
the testes and the penis and carry the sperm formed and generated in 
the testes into the minting-place of conception. There are three different 
opinions as to the generation of the sperm; Hippocrates says that it is 
formed, in substance, in the brain; Galen that it is formed in the liver; 
others say in the whole body. All these opinions seem to be more or 
less correct. The statement of Hippocrates was based for the most 
part upon what was said above, to the effect that a man with the vene 
juveniles cut can no longer form sperm. (The juveniles are certain 
veins which have a connection with the brain.) When Galen, on the 
other hand, spoke as he did, he was thinking chiefly of the origin of 
the sperm, for all members get the nutriment from which they are formed 
from the liver, where it originates. The opinion of the others referred 
to the situation and essence of the sperm, for the testes possess an attach- 
ment to their cooperating organs, the nerves, veins, and arteries. 

The uterus is cold and dry in complexion, fibrous and dense in com- 
position, oblong and round in form. It is hollow and villous within, 
smooth outside, divided into seven cells, and has two openings. It is 
cold and dry in complexion, in order that through these centripetal quali- 
ties it may acquire hardness and solidity. It is dense and fibrous, in 
order to resist the kicking of the foetus. It is round, in order to avoid 
angles in which harmful waste products might collect. It is oblong to 
accommodate the foetus. It has two orifices, one at the bottom, the 
other inside. The lower one is fleshy and less fibrous, the inner one 
more fibrous and less fleshy. The lower orifice is patent, the inner is 
patulous. There is a difference between these terms; “patent” is that 
which is sometimes open and sometimes not, while “patulous” is that 
which is always open, although sometimes it closes. The lower orifice 
is called vulva, from volo vis, or from volvendo, or from valva, which 
is a door, for it is the portal of the uterus. The uterus is divided into 
seven cavities, three on the right side, three on the left, the seventh in 
the middle. -In these cavities the foetus is generated, but there are 
diverse opinions about its formation. Some say that male infants are 
generated in the right cavities, females in the left, hermaphrodites in 
the middle. Others say that both males and females are generated on 
the right side and also on the left; but they also say that a male generated 
on the left side will be a weak and effeminate man, and conversely a 
female generated on the right will be mannish and rough. In the middle 
a so-called hermaphrodite will be generated, that is to say, a strange 
monster having both male and female organs. There are others who 


86 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


take into account the proportions of the sperm, saying that when the 
male and female sperm are mixed in the uterus to form the foetus, if 
the male sperm is present in greater proportion it draws the female 
sperm to its own likeness, and a boy will be conceived; if the contrary 
it will be a girl. If both are equal, an intermediate creature will be 
conceived, as already said. The same thing can be seen in water and 
wine. If wine in greater quantity be mixed with water, it draws the 
water to its own likeness and makes wine; and if the opposite, it makes 
water ; but if they are mixed in equal proportions an intermediate product 
is formed which is neither wine nor water, but differs in number and 
species from each of the constituents. Those who say this get the 
parallel upon the authority of Aristotle, who says that if you join any 
two equal things similar in power, each breaks down and forms an 
intermediate substance, but if they are unequal in power, the more 
potent dominates. 

It is customary to ask why women display more ardent desire after 
conception than before, and the following is the reason usually assigned: 
Constantine says that the os uteri is closed after conception. You are 
not to understand that it is closed immediately after the injection of 
the sperm from which the foetus is generated, but rather that it closes 
during the time in which the foetus is growing; otherwise we should 
be contradicting what has already been said. Twins are never generated 
from a single injection of sperm; there must be two injections to generate 
twins, and so forth. While the foetus is growing, the inner opening 
of the uterus contracts because of the weight and closes so tightly that 
not even the point of a needle can enter. The sensitive fibers touch each 
other, and feeling themselves empty they have a joyous desire for reple- 
tion. Women wishing to satisfy this desire receive the masculine sperm, 
but on account of the constriction in the region the sperm can not 
reach the sensitive fibers in large quantity. It comes about thus that 


the cold and dry fibers, perceiving the sperm, which is warm and moist, . 


develop greater desire and excitement. It is also usual to ask why 
women show greater desire than men. This is for a three-fold reason, 
namely, the complexion, the substance, and the composition of the 
uterus; for it is the law of solid and subtle bodies that they do not 
readily undergo change, but slowly give up what they have taken on, 
while subtle bodies quickly undergo change and readily relinquish it, 
as can be seen in straw and in iron. Therefore men, who are warm and 
dry in comparison to women, are quickly aroused and quickly relinquish 
desire, while women, on account of their own complexion as well as 
the complexion and solidity of the uterus, are not easily aroused, but 
once inflamed their desire does not quickly subside. 





PI ae Ae 


low, “aes es 
= me te Pe 





ANATOMIA VIVORUM (ANATOMIA RICARDI 
ANGLICI) 


[Translated from Téply’s text, with modifications based on the Giunta Galen] 


1. INTRODUCTION 


A knowledge of anatomy is necessary to physicians in order that they 
may understand how the human body is constructed to perform different 
movements and operations, and how the body is formed in many diverse 
parts, and endowed with a soul from which proceed noble powers and 
numerous virtues, by which it is ruled and preserved and protected from 
corruption and sudden accident. Since no function can be performed 
without organs adapted to its service, there is of necessity an adaptation 
and preparation of the numerous organs which form the human body, 
by which functions are carried on and the intended ends are reached. 
Again, no function can be preserved or even begun without various 
kinds of aid, and therefore special organs must be specially formed of 
diverse parts. The organs and their parts are called “members” by 
physicians, and they are generated from suitable humors as the humors 
are generated from the food. Some members are simple, others com- 
pound. The simple members are those of which any part, however 
small, is like all other parts in name and in definition, for instance, 
bone and flesh. The compound members are those of which the parts 
are not all alike in name and definition, for instance, the hand and 
the face. 


2. CoNSIMILAR MEMBERS 


The first among consimilar members is bone, which is hard because 
it is the framework of the body and sustains it when in motion; it varies 
in hardness, now more, now less. Next is cartilage, softer and more 
flexible, yet harder than the other tissues; the reason of its creation was 
to facilitate connection of bones to the membranes and muscles; for if 
soft parts were joined directly to hard parts, great pain would be caused 
as a result of a blow or by a fall compressing the soft against the hard; 
therefore the. heads and sockets of the bones were invested with this 
intermediate substance, as for instance, in the scapula, in the ribs, in the 
epiglottis, in the ensiform, and in many other places. However, this is 
not the only function of cartilage, which has many other uses; for 
instance, the ensiform cartilage serves to protect the entrance to the 
stomach. Where there is friction, as in the joints, cartilage makes better 
contact ; yet it may be broken as a result of its brittleness. Also, cartilage 


at times supports an elongated but weak part which would otherwise 


lack support or reinforcement. 
87 


88 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


3. THE NERVES 


Next are the nerves, which arise like twigs from the brain and spinal 
cord, to serve as messengers or agents. They are composed of firm and 
flexible material and are difficult to separate. Their function is to carry 
sensation and motion from the brain to other parts and to strengthen 
the whole body through which they pass; also to spread out and form 
investments of the insensitive organs like the liver, spleen, and lung. 
For these members do not possess feeling, but they are provided with an 
accessory nervous investment; and when they are swollen by abscesses 
or inflation the pressure and weight of the abscess or the enlargement 
of the swelling reaches the investment or its roots and is perceived. 

(Next follow nine similar paragraphs dealing with the tendons, ligaments, 
arteries, veins, membranes, flesh and glands, fat, marrow, and the fluids of 
the eyes.) 

13. THe SprnaL Corp 


The spinal cord is thought by some to be marrow, but Aristotle says 
that it is not marrow, because it possesses firmness, which is not a quality 
of marrow. He said also that its function is to pass through the spine 
like a ligament, helping unite the vertebre and everything which arises 
from them; but subsequently another use of it has been discovered, for 
it descends from the brain to provide sensation and motion in the 
members other than the head. 


14. ON THE VIRTUES, ORIGIN, AND STRUCTURE OF THE SIMPLE MEMBERS 


These are the simple members of the human body, in each of which 
are seated forces to guard and care for its functions. There are two 
kinds of necessary forces, motive and digestive or maturative. The 
doctors divide motive forces into three: appetitive, which draws required 
material to the proper place; expulsive, which expels unnecessary material 
from a place; and retentive, which retains in a place whatever is 
needed. . . . I say that the motion of every consimilar member is either 
from the sperm or from the blood. From the sperm everything is 
generated except fat and flesh, which are generated from blood. Accord- 
ing to the physician, male and female sperm are intended for different 
purposes. The purpose of the male sperm is to give form in the likeness 
of that from which the sperm comes; the purpose of the female sperm 
is to receive form in the likeness of that from which the sperm comes. 
From the male sperm, therefore, come spirit and creative power and 
form; from the female sperm come foundation, generation, and material. 
Flesh to fill the vacant spaces between organs is generated only from 
blood clotted by heat and dryness. Fat comes from fluidity and oiliness, 
which coagulate when cold and dissolve when heated. Anything gen- 
erated from blood can be renewed after loss; and anything generated 
from blood in which the power of the sperm persists can be renewed 


eo 
: 


Anatomia Vivorum (Anatomia Ricardi Anglici) 89 


after removal, as, for instance, the teeth in childhood. Also those parts 
which are allied to blood in complexion do not lack nutriment, because 
of the plentiful conversion of blood, which is immediately turned into 
nutriment. In the case of those parts which are derived from sperm, 
which are unlike blood in complexion, it is necessary for blood to be 
turned by plentiful conversion into nutriment for them, in orderly 
fashion; for this reason there are in certain members numerous foramina 
in which nutritive blood lingers and stagnates and is converted little by 
little into the semblance of the part. However, these foramina are 
distinct from the flesh. 

Although many of the foregoing parts are called “simple members” 
by doctors, yet they are not without complexions and textures. For 
instance, the veins and arteries and all membranes are composed of fibers 
or threads arranged in orderly texture, just as we see sometimes in 
artificial fabrics. This is for several reasons. First, all motion is carried 
on by strands; voluntary motion is performed by fibers distributed in 
muscles; and natural motion, which is attractive or attracted, retentive 
and expulsive, is carried on by the strands of which the natural vessels 
are woven, as, for instance, the stomach, intestines, veins, arteries, and 
nerves. Just as in artificial fabrics some threads run in length, some 
in breadth, some transversely, so it is also in some natural fabrics. The 
fibers which stretch longitudinally are called attractive; those which 
stretch latitudinally are expulsive and constrictive; those which descend 
transversely serve for retention. Then there are also restraining fibers 
placed in the middle to fit their various situations, to prevent excessive 
velocity of the expulsive and attractive movements; for motions should 
not be hasty, but should occur with a certain succession and gradation. 
Sometimes all these kinds of fibers occur at once in the same tunic, 
sometimes in different tunics; and when they occur in different tunics, 
then those fibers which stretch laterally are found chiefly in the outer 
layers and the other two kinds of fibers are found chiefly in the inner 
layers, but the longitudinal fibers tend toward the internal surface. This 
separation of the fibers is specially intended to cause better and quicker 
motion. In organs in which there is long retention of material, the 
retentive fibers are more decidedly mixed with the expulsive, as in the 
stomach, uterus, bladder, and caecum, all of which have spacious cavities. 
This is not the case in organs in which there is no such strong necessity, 
as, for instance, the intestines, in which the need is rather for much 
attraction with strong expulsion. 


15. THE VESSELS 


Next come the vessels, which are parts of members having a fibrous 
structure. Some of them have one coat and others have two. Those 
which have one coat are those in which there is no fear of damage from 
what is inside them, because the latter is soft and quiet, as, for instance, 


90 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


the quiet blood which resides in the veins. For this reason neither the 
veins nor the bladder have any need of complicated coverings, except in 
emergencies; but the body attempts to furnish a margin of safety when- 
ever possible, and hence there is a providential creation of multiplex 
tunics of members in which frequent and serious emergencies may occur, 
for the vessels in which there is violent and continuous motion must be 
strong and thick to provide protection and security; otherwise they might 
be torn apart by the movement of their contents. Besides, it is necessary 
to provide against the great danger of loss and dispersion of the violent 
material when it is of noble substance and especially when it is the 
peculiar vehicle of the soul; and this consideration had to be particularly 
looked after when the vessels were constructed. The materials referred 
to are spirits and blood, which are concealed in the arteries; they are 
called the first and best treasury of nature, and they are the cause of 
the multiplication of the coats of arteries. The third cause is the vigor- 
ous attraction and expulsion, which require a special organ or instrument, 
for each member is made separately and without mingling (of function), 
as demonstrated, for instance, by the stomach and intestines. The 
fourth cause is the variety of composition which arises from various 
sources and has various ends in view, and is best provided for by parts 
of diverse complexions. Therefore, since such operations are inevitable 
in every member, nature prefers to distribute them and to prepare an 
instrument appropriate to each operation by which it may best act. As 
an example, take the stomach, in which there is an operation which needs 
for completion both a fibrous and a non-fibrous organ and also a digestive 
operation which is best carried out in a fleshy organ. Therefore nature 
arranged both a fleshy and a fibrous coat, providing the latter for tem- 
pering and distempering unprepared foodstuffs, the former for matura- 
tion of the material undergoing digestion. Nature, however, arranged 
the position of these coats with provident care, placing the fibrous and 
sensitive coat inside, the fleshy digestive coat outside, so that the action 
of the digesting layer may take place without contact with the material 
to be digested, while the mechanical action is performed in contact with 
the material involved. 


(16, The Skin, is omitted.) 


17. THe OrGANIc MEMBERS 


There are some organs which receive service and are royal, and others 
which do service to the former. The royal organs which receive service 
are those in which is fullness of life, and they are the seats of the forces 
of life and of intellect, and they are official. There are seven internal 
royal organs, four of which are preeminent in importance and authority, 
namely, the heart, brain, liver, and stomach, and these are most important 
because they are the source of the vital forces ruling the animate body 


——— a re 


Anatomia Vivorum (Anatomia Ricardi Anglici) oF 


of man. After these in importance are the two testicles, the kidneys, 
and the bladder. These seven are divided like the planets, and if we 
add the lung and spleen we find eight, comparable in importance to the 
eight spheres and divided like the eight orbs of the world. Some of 
the organs which serve the royal organs are external and visible, namely, 
the eyes, ears, hands, and feet; others are internal, such as the epiglottis, 
oesophagus, trachea, intestines, and so. forth. God ordained also flesh 
and nerves, kidneys, testicles, vulva, the membranes of the heart and 
the thorax, the uvula and epiglottis, the tonsils and the tongue. 

The blood emanates from the liver and its place is in the veins and 
in the heart. Its power is exerted in the surface of the body and in the 
anterior part of the head, and consequently its properties are laughter, 
joy, desire of coitus, and much sleeping; in the stomach its properties 
are speed of digestion and ease of penetration; and in the whole body 
its property is to change its substance readily into flesh. 

Glorious and Excellent God also created the brain, lung, and all cold 
and moist members of the body from phlegm; and he made phlegm the 
beginning and special element of these organs. He divided it into divi- 
sions like those of the waters upon the earth and the division in the 
air made by clouds. Thus there is a part of the phlegm which runs in 
the pulmonary passages and is mixed with the air, aiding to prepare it 
to stimulate the heart and to strengthen the respiratory force to expel it, 
for retention of it may be the cause of combustion of the heart. It is 
this portion of the phlegm which rises from the lung to the brain and 
by its composition descends thence as dew descends from the air near 
the earth. Its power is exerted in the posterior part of the brain and 
in the thorax, and it affects the conduct, favoring chastity, poverty, 
piety, desire of coitus. It also affects movement, producing sluggishness, 
taciturnity, gravity, and slowness of response. In the body it tends to 
paralysis, tremor, and debility. Its action in the stomach is to produce 
chilling by the sharpness of the food, drink, and other material brought 
into the stomach, the heart, or other part of the body, because the expul- 
sive force is strengthened in it, like by like and similar by similar. 


18. THE GALL-BLADDER 


Almighty and Glorious God also created the gall-bladder, which is hot, 
dry, and fiery. It is the seat of the yellow bile. He placed it near the 
liver to aid the latter in the defecation of food, and he put the place of 
action of the yellow bile in the top of the head, because of its lightness, 
subtlety, altitude, and elevation. The bile is exhaled from the two ears 
because they are formed from it, and its nature is similar to that of the 
ears, because it is hot and dry. It flows through the body with the blood, 


_ because the blood and bile are fitted to one another like the fitness of the 


oil to the lamp. Its function in the stomach is to attract food and to 
aid digestion and the discharge of the feces. It presides over moral 


92 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


virtue, and among its incidental effects are inconstancy, fury, subtlety, 
acuteness, skill, boldness, elation, desire of coitus, memory, and quickness 
of response. From it the whole body derives heat and dryness. 


19. Tue Bones, CarTILAGEsS, Hairs, AND NAILS 


God related the bones, cartilages, hairs, nails, and ligaments to black 
bile; for all these members, made of congealed earth and deprived of 
sensation, are derived from the melancholic humor, which is located in 
the spleen. Its force is exerted in the organs of vision and in the left 
side of the body, and it promotes taciturnity, cogitation, gravity, lamenta- 
tion, fear, solicitude, and pusillanimity. In the stomach it has the prop- 
erty of retaining and exciting the appetite. From the black bile the 
body acquires coldness and dryness of flesh and immobility according to 
the degree of its domination. 

(20, Principal Members; 21, The Heart; 22, The Substance of the Heart; 


and 23, The Firm and Dry Parts of the Heart, contain matter which is largely 
repeated in 42.) 


24. THe PosITION OF THE HEART 


The heart is situated in the middle of the chest because conditions are 
more temperate there. It inclines a little toward the left side in order 
to leave more room for the liver, for it is better to give space to the liver 
than to the spleen because the liver is higher. There is a second reason 
for its inclination toward the left, namely, to prevent excessive heat in 
the right side; for the right side might be overheated because of its near- 
ness to the two sources of bodily heat, while the left might be cooled 
down because it is removed from those sources. On this account it is 
better for the heart to incline toward the left in order to warm the left 
side, especially since the spleen itself is not very warm. There is a third 
reason, namely, to make space for the hollow vein which ascends from 
the liver (or descends to it). 

The heart is situated in the middle, in order that it may be equally 
near to all surrounding parts and may easily gather assistance from 
them, and that it may be everywhere surrounded by the organs which 
serve it. 

God measured the capacity of the heart, making it sufficient without 
excess or insufficiency, so that it should not be overweighted by too 
much blood nor break nor choke in its extremities because of too little 
contents. From it the arteries originate, all ligaments are suspended, 
and all power is derived. However, excess and insufficiency of the heart 
occur at times, but I say that exaggerated size of the heart is not the 
cause of boldness, as some assert, nor is smallness of it the cause of 
fear and trembling. Many animals have hearts which are large out of 
proportion to their bodies, but these animals are mostly timid and fearful, 
because the whole heart is not warmed, but is left cold and empty, and 


o 


Anatomia Vivorum (Anatomia Ricardi Anglici) 93 


the animal is timid. On the other hand, certain animals have small 
hearts, and these are bold, because there is much warmth in their hearts 
and this is confined by the narrow space and boils fiercely. But the 
animals which are boldest are those which have both large hearts and 
much heat. The heart is nourished by its natural forces and their 
motions, namely, diastole and systole, with two intervening rests, for 
there must be a rest between two contrary motions. In all this nature 
employs a sort of musical art, for just as music is formed by the succes- 
sion of high and low notes properly and rhythmically arranged, so in 
the arrangement of pulsation in the heart there is a systematic arrange- 
ment of the rate and an alternation of strength and weakness of pulse- 
beat and rest. When all these things run properly and in order, then 
the regimen of the body is sound and everything goes on in safety ana 
quiet. But if these events exceed their natural proportions, then there 
is a disturbance of nature, and the extent of disturbance is proportional 
to the deviation. ‘The heart-beat is therefore either a harmony arising 
from the sources of the bodily constitution, or else discord caused by 
factors leading to excess or decrease, as is manifest in the fluctuations 
of the mind, such as fear, hope, sadness and joy, luxury, chastity, greed, 
and generosity; also in the bodily ills, cold as well as hot, moist, dry, 
and so forth. 

The limit of movement of the heart is determined by contact with 
the tunic or membrane outside it which is provided as protection and 
guard. There is a space between the heart and this membrane where 
the artery originates and also at the base of the heart, so that it can 
dilate without suffocation and contract in ample space. Its movements 
cause movements in the arteries, its dilatation causing them to dilate, its 
contraction causing them to constrict. (Some, however, say otherwise, 
referring to the action of bellows, but experience manifestly contradicts 
them.) To prove this, if you place one hand over the heart and the 
other upon an artery, you will observe depression of the heart to coincide 
with depression of the artery and elevation of the heart with elevation 
of the artery. It is also true that a thin, slow, and small pulse causes 
sadness, which would never occur if the arteries were dilated by contrac- 
tion of the heart. Also, according to this other view, a round and 
swollen face ought to occur with sadness rather than with anger, and 
an enlarged pulse with humility rather than with pride, and a depressed 
pulse with pride rather than with humility; but in fact the opposite 
always happens, and this shows that elevation of the heart results in 
elevation of the artery and constriction of the heart causes constriction 
of the artery. The advance of the vital heat begins at the fundus or 
small end of the heart where it originates, thence proceeding laterally 
and outwardly after the pattern of the heart. It then leaves the heart, is 
taken up by the vessels, and is carried over the whole body, even to the 


94 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


extremities, where it is distributed. This motion is in truth the primal 
motion, and the pattern of the heart thus followed is the source of all 
patterns of the body. Isaac, however, holds views widely different from 
this. i 

The whole animal body is thus developed by nature, as it were, from 
one primal root, but on account of the diversity of important functions 
which arise from its root it was necessary to create diverse organs 
without any commixture, by which they could be prepared and in which 
their successful working might be more easily sustained by separation 
of their actions; for if these organs were united into one, the confusion 
of forces would cause internal disorder and impediment. It is better, 
then, for these numerous and diverse receptacles to be separate and for 
the more important bodily functions to be specifically developed each in 
a single organ. For this reason the brain, liver, lung, and stomach were 
created as individual branches of the main root. For above the main 
root other branches grow in fellowship. As in things which grow in 
the earth, the root is the first and lowest part, and then ascending branches 
appear; and thus the plant progresses vigorously and does better than 
it promised at first. So also in the animal, members develop above the 
root, which is the heart, and these are comparable to the branches of 
plants, for nature sets up in them various functions, according to the 
need of the respective parts of the animal. 

Nature’s solicitude is of double kind, consisting first of restoration 
of used-up or injured parts and second of care and protection of the 
restoring parts. Thus there is a double exit from the heart and a double 
pathway of restrictive force to the outward parts. But she prefers to 
conceal her inner workings, which are buried with her furnaces and 
nodes in two spaces prepared by nature, the upper and the lower. They 
are separated by the diaphragm (the upper cavity is also divided by the 
central membrane of the chest) and the upper is the home of the heart 
and lung. In the lung is located the preparation and rectification of 
spirits before they enter the heart. Air is drawn to this part through 
the large tube and the nasal canals. 

The lower cavity is the seat of the organs of nutrition; it is entered 
by way of the oesophagus, and into it the wastes are drained. 

In connection with the air there is a branch, namely, the lung, upon 
which grow the trachea with its cartilage and the nasal canals; and in 
connection with the blood another branch sprouts, namely, the liver, in 
which the blood first appears; and subject to this are other branches, 
small in comparison with the liver, which are filters and are the seats of 
the heavy wastes of the blood. Above the liver is the stomach with its 
appendages (although these are also related in another sense to the brain 
and to the main root, the heart, on account of the excessive quantity 
of the blood of the stomach and of its appendages, and on account of 





oc 


Anatomia Vivorum (Anatomia Ricardi Anglici) 95 


the quantity of its work or weight when it is full). Above the stomach 
is the oesophagus, which receives food from the mouth. Its function 
is the care and protection of the organs of nutrition. The growth of 
the whole structure is toward the exterior. Therefore it rises and ascends 
toward the uppermost part, which is the region of most importance in 
caring for the members, and in that place another branch grows in which 
very marvelous operations are carried on. This branch is called the 
brain. Above it are several other branches in which the five senses 
operate. These senses look toward the exterior, and in them irascibility 
and concupiscence are seated; and these branches are muscles scattered 
throughout the body, both inside and outside, and in the extremities, 
as in the hands and feet and in the head. The branches in which gen- 
eration is seated are derived from the brain, according to Hippocrates; 
although according to learned men since his day they are supported and 
sustained on other primary branches by means of spirits from the primal 
root (i.e., the heart). 


25. THe ARTERIES OF THE HEART 


From the left ventricle of the heart arise two arteries, one of which 
passes to the lung and there divides, in order that it may draw in air, 
and also it may carry directly from the heart the blood which is to nourish 
the lung, because the nutriment of the lung is carried first to the left 
ventricle, in which it is meliorated, and then is transmitted to the lung. 
This artery differs from all other arteries in that it has but one tunic, 
and therefore it is called arteria venalis. If you compare the firmness 
and solidity of the double tunic with the lightness and porosity of the 
single tunic, you will see that lightness and porosity and a single tunic 
are necessary here, because lightness and porosity facilitate dilatation 
and constriction and the filtering of that which filters from this artery 
into the lung, namely, thin and volatile blood, which is similar to the 
substance of the lung and suitable for it. This arteria venalis divides 
in the anterior side of the lung and is attached to it. It carries subtle 
and vaporous blood which is nearly but not quite completely digested, 
but there is no fear on this account, because of its nearness to the heart, 
from which there comes warm digestive force to convert the blood. 
There is also a vein from the right ventricle of the heart which enters 
the lung, having two tunics like an artery, for which reason it is called 
vena arterialis. Its first function is to permit complete refinement of 
the blood which filters from it, because this blood is not digested like 
that which is poured into the arteria venalis. For this reason it is neces- 
sary that the vein which carries it must be provided with thick tunics. 
Another function is to permit only the filtering of blood, which is thin 
and well heated, as nearly as possible like that which comes from the 
left cavity, because the latter is (as it were) a subtle spirit oF great 
assistance to the lung in its movements. 


96 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


The lung is thus made to serve as a receptacle for cold air, which then 
goes to cool the heart. If this air did not exist, the heart would burn 
itself up. For this reason, every animal which has much heat has also 
a large lung. The quadrupeds have large lungs; but the birds, which 
are of colder nature, have small lungs, because the inspired air is suffi- 
cient to supply heat to the spirits, so that some birds neither drink nor 
feel thirst, for the inspired heat suffices to their nature. 

Galen says that air is not drawn to the heart to serve as nutriment, 
because neither air (since it is simple) nor simple water can become 
nutriment, because of the dissimilarity and distance between these sub- 
stances and the nutriment. In truth, however, each of them is either a 
part of the nutriment or else aids the nutriment to become free. I say 
that air is nutriment to the spirits, and that both air and water are not 
simple substances but compound. The method by which the heart and 
its spirits are cooled by the air is by evacuation of the waste part of the 
burned-out spirit, which is a vapor rendered tense and almost on fire 
through its motion. This occurs especially because the air is cold in 
comparison with the expired vaporous heat. The cooling of the heart 
by the indrawn air is similar to the cooling of the stomach at the time 
it is being filled, by the movement and descent of the food (as the 
Philosopher says, “the empty stomach heats, the full stomach cools’), 
for the lung also has moving parts. The first of these is the trachea, 
next the branches of the arteria venalis, and thirdly the branches of the 
vena arterialis. ‘To these is added the flesh, which is porous and soft, 
and created from very thin and subtle blood, by which also it is nour- 
ished and preserved. The lung is therefore porous and soft, tending to 
whiteness and having many passages; it receives air into itself and digests 
and expels waste substance from it. Just as the liver is made, in relation 
to the food, the lung also is soft in order to permit of its two motions, 
namely, attraction and respiration. In these motions it follows the 
thorax. The function of the flesh of the lung is to fill the veins and to 
unite their branches. Its tendency to whiteness is because of the domina- 
tion of water over it, by which it is nourished, and because of its great 
coldness; for it is the seat of water by which the respiratory force is 
aided in the expulsion of hot vapors and by which air is aided to reach 
the heart quickly. The porosity of the lung fits it for the attraction and 
reception of air; for the air not only passes into the trachea, but also 
goes through the trachea into the body of the lung, and thus there is an 
obViously large amount of air in the lung. There is another advantage 
in its porosity, namely, that it facilitates constriction and expulsion. 
The lining is thus prepared for two motions, and on this account the 
lining expands with insufflation and constricts and closes with exsuffla- 
tion. Its constriction follows the constriction of the thorax and its dila- 
tion follows dilatation of the thorax, as we have said, so that no vacuum 


e 


Anatomia Vivorum (Anatomia Ricardi Anglicti) 97 


is formed. The same thing may be seen in a sponge which when 
squeezed in the hand is compressed into a narrow space, but if it is 
released and the air enters, the sponge dilates and takes up as large a 
space as before. 

The lung is divided into two parts, by which we may consider it to 
be twinned in the same way that other organs are double in man. 
Although it is open to doubt whether the liver be double in man, it is 
double in fishes; a duplication of the brain is recognized in man, because 
man suffers from migraine, and also because when he is paralyzed one 
side suffers and not the other. The utility of the division of the lung 
into two parts is that there is no loss of respiration when one of the 
two parts suffers injury. Each division of the lung is further divided 
into two lobes, and on the right side another lobe is found which is not 
of much use in breathing, but serves as a bed for the vena cava ascending 
to the heart with nutritive blood. The second divisions of the lung, 
like the first, serve, as it were, as fingers in embracing the heart. The 
extra section of the right side is to fill up and equalize the space, because 
the heart deviates to the left side. The lung is insensitive and immobile 
in itself; we know this because no nerves penetrate it, and all sensation 
and motion is carried on by nerves. It is covered by a nervous membrane 
which provides it with sensation on the surface, as was foreordained. 
The lung itself is spread beneath the heart, sustaining and lifting it. It 
is hollowed out on the dorsal side and is doubled there in order to fit 
into the hollows at each side of the spine. It is also hollowed in front 
in order to embrace the heart more easily. Its greatest density is where 
the trachea makes exit. From this point it descends, gradually thinning 
out toward its lower end. Its greater density in the upper part is neces- 
sary to support the broad and dense upper portion of the heart, for 
which purpose it needs to be dense and soft above; but below it does 
not need this kind of denseness and is thinned out, because the heart 
also is relatively thinner and less dense. In this way the lung may be 
compared to the earth, which supports and guards the fruit just as the 
lung supports and guards the heart. 

There are several reasons for the large size of the lung. One is to 
provide a quantity of air which will suffice for several pulsations of 
the heart; for if because of smallness of the lung the number of inspira- 
tions was equal to the number of heart-beats, then of necessity several 
very important properties of the lung would cease to exist, for instance, 
the prolonged emission of sound which is required in sermons, in 
addresses, and in singing; the breath could not be held in the presence 
of stinking or putrifying things, nor at the moment of swallowing. 
Indeed, both inspiration and expiration would be hindered, but this 
could not continue long. A large bulk of lung is also needed in order 
to provide a sufficient quantity of spirits when a person is submerged 


98 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


in the waters. Some animals have lungs, others do not; those which 
have’ lungs are those which walk and contain blood. In fishes there are 
gills, and some other animals have canals and passages in place of lungs. 
The dolphin, the sea-hare, and other animals which are amphibious and 
which are called cenealia in Arabic, as well as fishes, breathe water-vapor 
through their gills, for a small amount of vapor suffices for them, since 
they contain a large quantity of cold. It is doubtful whether fishes 
breathe air, but fishermen say that when the dolphin sleeps on the surface 
of the sea they hear him snore. (Galen promised that he would discuss 
this matter. ) 


26. THE STRUCTURE OF THE EYE 


God placed the head at the upper part of the animal, and he did this 
chiefly on account of the eyes; and he made the anterior part of the 
head higher in order to put the eyes there. Like a scout looking all 
about him from a height for an army on the plain, the eyes survey the 
structures placed below. Certain animals with small, sloping heads 
have their eyes placed at the ends of nerves which they alternately put 
out and draw in. This is the case in the snail, in which these extremities 
are called horns. In other animals these projecting extremities can not 
be retracted, but they have adjacent organs of defense like two shields 
for the eyes; this is the case in the crab. 

From the brain two nerves arise, each of which is surrounded by 
two membranes or tunics originating from the two matres or meninges; 
and these membranes pass into the two eyes and there dilate to surround 
and receive the humors. There is a crystalline humor, called grando 
glacialis by Aristotle, because it resembles a hail-stone in form and color. 
This is placed in the depth and in the middle for two reasons; because 
the middle is a safe and honorable place, and because in that position it 
can receive sustenance from surrounding structures. This humor has 
a spherical form in its posterior aspect, but is slightly flattened on the 
anterior side for this reason; if 1t were everywhere spherical, the image 
of the thing seen would slide over it and would touch it at one point 
only. Therefore the anterior surface is flattened so that the sight of 
small objects may strike it in numerous places. This humor is diaph- 
anous and translucent in order that it may be receptive to all forms. 

Next after the crystalline humor toward the brain comes the vitreous 
humor, so called because it is like melted glass. Its color, like that of 
glass, is intermediate between pink and white. It serves to rectify the 
nutriment of the crystalline humor and to make a gradation in the blood 
which is to be converted into the crystalline humor; for if blood in 
the red condition penetrated to the crystalline humor it would contami- 
nate it and would make everything looked at appear red. It rises to the 
greatest circumference of the crystalline, making a hemisphere about it. 


——————E—EeE—E— Oe 


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Anatomia Vivorum (Anatomia Ricardi Anglici) 99 


This humor has the same relation to the crystalline as the stomach has 
to the liver. 

At the front of the crystalline humor, opposite to the vitreous, is the 
albugineous humor, which resembles white of egg, and which has mul- 
tiple functions. It protects the crystalline from the rarefaction of the 
external air. It is also a superfluity of the crystalline, just as the hair 
and nails are superfluities of the animal and yet serve to protect it. This 
humor is placed in front of the crystalline in order to graduate the light 
and image, for nature does not well bear sudden changes. Therefore, 
when this humor is injured sight is destroyed. It is liquid in order that 
by means of its liquidity the light and image of the entering thing may 
become enlarged. This humor is situated in an opening in the uveal 
tunic, called the pupil of the eye. Inside there is a circular membrane 
which extends to the periphery of the crystalline lens, almost inclosing 
two humors, or, rather, inclosing the vitreous entirely and the crystalline 
almost entirely. This is called the “second tunic” because it arises from 
the second mater or pia mater. From this tunic three others arise at 
the same place. One is reflected inward between the crystalline and the 
vitreous, serving to separate them to a certain extent; it is called the 
retina, for it has innumerable veins, arteries, and nerves like the meshes 
of a net. At the same place arises another tunic called aranea, which 
overlies the crystalline humor and together with the retina forms a 
sphere. It is called aranea because it is like a spider’s web; it is delicate 
in order not to impede the light from entering the crystalline humor, 
and it is placed like a separator between the crystalline and the albu- 
gineous humor. Outside this humor, but arising from the same place 
along with the tunica secunda, is still another tunic which forms an 
external spherical covering. This is called uvea, because it is perforated 
like a grape with its stem removed, and has the same shape and color. 
Its color is a mixture of black with a little white; if it were pure white 
it would dissipate the sight too much, and if it were pure black it would 
over-concentrate the sight. This tunic is rather dense; inside it is about 
as soft as the crystalline humor, and outside it is about as hard as the 
cornea; around its foramen it is pink. When the sight is weakened in 
its course and needs strengthening this membrane can be constricted 
like a purse, and when the sight suffers by diffusion of light, then the 
uvea can be dilated. In its foramen and filling its internal folds is the 
albugineous humor, and this is dilated and constricted with dilatation 
and constriction of the foramen of the uvea. 

Again, from the outer membrane there arises another tunic outside 
the secunda which is called the sclerotic, because of its hardness. The 


cornea arises from the sclerotic and in connection with it forms a sphere. 


The cornea is clear and hard, resembling well-rubbed and polished horn. 
By its hardness it protects the inner structures; by its clearness it is 


100 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


made pervious to light. In its center there is a broad circle having its 
opening in the middle of the uvea, and this circle is called the corona. 
The cornea is composed of four layers; if two or three are removed 
the fourth still remains, but when that is gone the cornea is destroyed. 
Finally, there is the conjunctiva, binding all the parts together. This 
arises from the nerve and not from the cerebral membranes. It is 
composed of white, moist, and soft flesh and of nerves and delicate 
veins. It has an opening in its center through which the corona is seen; 
this is the part of the uveal tunic which is called the pupil. On account 
of its depth it takes a different color than the albuginea, just as very 
deep water appears black, although it is really white. This tunic has 
seven pairs of muscles which produce all the movements of the eye, 
one moving the eye upward, another downward, two others moving it 
toward the two angles of the eye, one toward the domestic or lachrymal 
angle, another toward the sylvestrine angle. There are also two trans- 
verse muscles which move the eye circularly. Let this suffice for the 
structure of the eye. 


(The following sections are omitted for lack of space: 27, The Ears; 
28, The Nose; 29, The Mouth; 30, The Teeth; 31, The Uvula; 32, The 
Oesophagus ; 33, Stomach; 34, Composition of the Stomach; 35, The Several 
Intestines. The treatment of these organs is not widely different from that 
of the earlier texts.) 


36. THE LIVER 


God made the liver to be the source of the blood and the origin of 
the veins. However, on this point Aristotle dissents from Galen, for 
Aristotle believes that the heart is the origin of the veins and proves 
that the liver is not the origin by the following reasons: First, the liver 
is composed of veins; since the components are prior to that which they 
compose, therefore the liver is not the beginning of the veins. Again, 
the liver is fleshy; the veins rather resemble fibrous tissue (nervus) 
and therefore must originate from fibers rather than from flesh. Again, 
the vital force flows from the heart to the other members; this force 
consists of warmth and moisture and so does the blood; therefore the 
blood comes from the heart. Galen says that it comes from the liver, 
for this reason: the blood is generated in the liver, therefore the liver 
is the source of the blood. Again, the waste-products of any substance 
surround the place of its origin; the urine is one waste of the blood and 
is contained in the bladder. Again, black biliary blood is another waste 
which is contained in the spleen. Again, another waste of the blood 
is contained in the gall-bladder, and finally, all these superfluities and 
the vessels which contain them are located about the liver; therefore the 
origin of the blood is in the liver, since its wastes are found surrounding 
the liver. On this point Avicenna remarks that there is nothing against 
the blood taking origin from the liver, although the heart is fleshy and 


Anatomia Vivorum (Anatomia Ricardi Anglici) 101 


the veins are fibrous, for coral is found growing in the mud. It can 
also be said that both the heart and the liver are sources of the blood, but 
the heart is the first and mediate source, furnishing the heat of the blood, 
and the liver is the immediate and proximate source. 

The liver is hollowed on one side, bulging on the other; it is located 
under the diaphragm and mostly on the right side. It is hollow in order 
to receive the stomach within its concavity. It has many processes, 
some small and others large, which embrace the stomach like the fingers 
of a hand. (Members of good holding capacity must be like the palm 
of the hand.) 

The outside of the liver is convex in conformity to the shape of the 
inside of the body, for the inside of a man’s body is round and the liver 
is joined to the spine, to which its round shape fits it. It is located on 
the right side in order to receive directly the vivifying insufflation of 
the heart. From the lower concave part of the liver a vein passes out 
and divides into many branches, giving rise to the small veins called 
mesenterics, some of which enter the intestines and drain them; others 
enter the stomach and there terminate, receiving from the stomach the 
better and subtler portions of its contents. The above-mentioned vein 
also branches in another direction and spreads throughout the whole 
substance of the liver. On the convex side of the liver these branches 
unite again to form a great vein, called vena kilis, which passes to the 
heart itself. In the concavity of the liver the Jactea also ramifies, because 
there is a kind of milky humor coming from the intestines and the 
stomach. 


37. ORGANS ACCESSORY TO THE LIVER 


God created separate vessels for each of the superfluities of the blood 
because they perform various natural functions. In the second digestion 
three kinds of wastes depart from the blood: first a foamy, warm, and 
dry substance which is called bile, then an excretion which is called 
black bile, and finally a watery material tinged with blood, which 
is called phlegm. This also enters the bladder and is then called urine. 
The natural wastes have two sacs or canals, the larger of which is the 
urinary bladder, the smaller the gall-bladder. The gall-bladder is sus- 
pended in the concave part of the liver, that is, at the point of origin of 
the blood. It is connected with the liver and has three ducts. The first 
carries bile to the fundus of the stomach to aid in digestion. The 
second duct passes to the intestines and to the jejunum by way of several 
branches, carrying bile for the cleansing of the intestine. If the gall- 
bladder becomes obstructed severe pains occur in the intestines, for the 
bile is then irritant and pungent and stimulates the intestine to expel it. 
The third duct goes to the liver itself, and by this the gall-bladder draws 
off the warmer substances from the liver for its own nourishment, for 
it is warm and dry of complexion. This little sac possesses a neck in 


102 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


which longitudinal fibers predominate, conferring strong attractive 
power; it also contains latitudinal fibers, serving for expulsion, and 
transverse fibers for retention. 

The spleen is also a special organ of excretion. This is located between 
two warm members, the heart and the liver, in order that by its potential 
frigidity it may induce moderate temperatures in times of danger. It 
is of black-biliary complexion. It has two ducts. The first of these is 
directed to the orifice of the stomach, transmitting black bile to provoke 
the appetite. For this reason obstruction of the spleen causes distaste 
for food, but an over-free passage of black bile causes bulimia or exces- 
sive appetite. The second duct of the spleen passes to the liver, and 
through this the spleen draws off black-biliary matter for its own nour- 
ishment. The spleen has a somewhat oblong shape like the tongue, 
girdling the stomach. At one end it is joined to the liver in order to 
draw off black bile; for this reason the stomach becomes involved in 
disease of the spleen because an insufficient amount of black bile is trans- 
mitted to it; the liver in turn is chilled by retention of the black bile and 
thus arises disorder of the second digestion. The spleen is composed 
of coarse flesh and hard black bile; it is spongy and porous in order to 
absorb black bile for its own nutriment and to generate black bile from 
the blood and carry it through the organs. It is not necessary for all 
of this waste substance to be dispersed through the members, but it is 
necessary that it be withdrawn from the blood and deposited in one 
place. 

38. THE STRAINERS 


God created two strainers by which the watery waste material is drawn 
off in order to prevent it from corrupting the blood. These are called 
kidneys, and they are two in number, because if there were only one it 
would have to be very large to receive so great an amount of watery 
waste material and thus it would interfere with neighboring organs. 
There is another reason why they are doubled, namely, if one of them 
is prevented from receiving the waste products the other will take a 
greater quantity. One is situated on the right side, the other directly 
opposite on the left. The one which is on the right is joined by its upper 
pole to the liver; that which is on the left is attached to the spleen. The 
kidneys are formed of solid substance for several reasons; first, in order 
that much may be condensed in a small space; again, by their solidity 
they resist humors, as, for instance, the pungent and destructive bile 
which comes from the stomach to the kidneys; and finally, to condense 
the blood and waste products by their hardness and solidity, like two 
ligatures pressing upon their ducts, thus refining the blood for their own 
nourishment by expressing the water. The separation of water from 
the blood occurs in three places, first, in the dome of the liver; second, 
in the vena cava, by which the watery material with the first blood, as 





o 


Anatomia Vivorum (Anatomia Ricardi Anglici) 103 


it were the washings of the flesh, is transmitted to the kidneys them- 
selves, in which the second separation takes place; the third separation 
is carried on in the bladder. If the ducts of the kidneys are opened the 
blood flows into the bladder and passes off with the urine. The kidneys 
have two orifices, one superior, by which they drain the liver through 
certain canals, another inferior, through which they discharge into the 
bladder ; and there is also a certain artery passing from the heart through 
the middle of the liver, bearing spirits or life to the kidneys. Certain 
veins also pass from the liver to the kidneys, bearing the nutriment of 
the blood to the outer parts of the kidneys; the kidneys have no veins 
inside them, but are nourished by the blood which they draw through 
the canals with the watery waste products. The kidneys are attached 
to some of the vertebrae, from which they derive a sensitive external 
covering. On the inner side they are slightly hollow, on the outer side 
rounded and nodular, having certain accessory orifices. They are 
surrounded by fat, for a reason which is assigned elsewhere. 


(I omit 39, Urinary Bladder, and the latter part of 40, Penis.) 
40. THe UTERUS 


God created the uterus to be the instrument and the place of generation 
in women. Its neck is to be compared with the penis, and its internal 
cavity to the oschium or scrotal pouch; and it bears the same relation 
to the male generative organ as a seal bears to its impression in wax. 
The female organ is inverted, or turned inward; the male is everted or 
turned outward. The neck of the uterus has pouch-like membranes 
and folds, resembling the neck of the bladder, so that it may be dilated 
and constricted according to necessity. Before pregnancy the os uteri 
is constricted; its folds resemble a rose before the petals are expanded, 
and the canal is so tightly closed that there is passage for the urine only. 
At the first menstruation the neck of the uterus is dilated, certain veins 
in its right side are lacerated, and the blood flows. The os uteri is 
doubled, having an outer orifice where the neck of the uterus ends, and 
an inner orifice where it begins. At the time of conception it is closed 
so tightly that not even a needle can pass it; nature has arranged this to 
prevent harmful substances from entering after conception. At the 
time of parturition the neck of the uterus is dilated until it is as large 
as the interior of the uterus, like a rose when it is fully expanded. 

Inside, at the middle of the uterus, there are two processes projecting 
into it, like two horns or nipples, to which two foetuses adhere, a male 
on the right side, a female on the left. Just as nature has prepared two 
breasts as external organs of nutrition, so are there two internal organs 
of attachment. Some mistakenly say that there are five cells in the 
uterus and some say seven, because a corresponding number of foetuses 
can be carried in the uterus at once; but it must be said that even as 


104 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


many pears may be seen hanging from one tree, by which they are 
nourished, so may several foetuses adhere at once to one process in the 
uterus, from which they all take nutriment. On account of the fact 
that one of these two processes is connected with the right nipple, the 
other with the left, Hippocrates says that if the right breast shrinks a 
male foetus will be aborted. 

The uterus is situated between the rectum and the bladder, the rectum 
serving as the cushion upon which it rests; in some women the neck of 
the uterus is longer, more slender, more tortuous, coarser, and straighter 
than in others, just as in some men the penis is more slender, longer, and 
more curved. The uterus is composed of two layers, of which the outer 
is more fleshy, the inner somewhat more nervous, so that it may be 
more or less sensitive but not to a great degree, for if the uterus were 
too sensitive child-birth would be over-painful. The outer layer is dry 
in order to preserve natural heat; the interior is ligamentous, that is, 
composed of all kinds of fibers, longitudinal, latitudinal, and transverse. 
The uterus is strongly attached on its posterior side to the spine by two 
ligaments. Its ligaments descend also to the knees and from the knees 
to the feet; above it is bound to the diaphragm by ligaments which 
ascend to the nipples and to the eyes. Near the os uteri there are two 
tactores resembling eggs or testicles, which are somewhat broader than 
the testicles of the male, and which are slightly elongated. They are 
broader in order to diffuse moisture and oblong on account of their heat. 
Nature made them twin organs in order that they should be the place 
of generation of the sperm itself, from which the substance of the human 
body arises. The female organs from which the sperm or substance of 
the sperm is derived are antecedent and consequential. The antecedent 
vessels are certain veins which proceed from the brain to the testicles, 
carrying whitened blood which had served as nutriment for the brain; 
the testicles make use of this blood as nourishment by means of their 
own attractive power. The residuum of this nutriment is transmitted 
to the consequential seminal vessels in the penis and through that organ 
into the uterus to generate the foetus. The male spermatic duct is nar- 
row, long, and curved in order that the sperm may be thinned and refined 
during its long passage; but in women the sperm does not require to 
be thinned, since it needs to be coarser and moister than the male sperm 
which is to act upon it. For this reason the passage of the female sperm 
from the testicles to the uterus is short, and the sperm enters the uterus 
at once at the lower part of the uterus on each side and not through 
the os itself. For this reason it does not unite with the male sperm until 
both reach the uterus. 

Below the internal os there is another opening, that of the bladder, 
which enters the neck of the uterus, and thus the urine is discharged 
by the same channel through which the sperm enters. 


« 


Anatonua Vivorum (Anatonua Ricardi Anglici) 105 


The male and female sperms mingle in the uterus, and the male sperm 
acts upon the female, for the male sperm naturally tends to impress the 
form of that from which it comes, and the female sperm tends to receive 
form. The sperm acts upon the female sperm, or (as others say) upon 
the menstrual blood, and causes bubbling like yeast in dough. Galen 
thinks, however, that each acts upon the other, and is acted upon by 
the other; at any rate, the two kinds of sperm are mixed and froth is 
formed in them in which are the three spirits, spiritual, vital, and animal, 
each conferring its own kind of movement and each tending to generate 
its appropriate material, the vital spirit generating the heart, the natural 
spirit generating the liver, and the animal spirit generating the brain. 
Thus, as the frothing reaches into the depths of the sperm, certain vesicles 
are formed in its midst by the action of the three spirits, an upper and 
a lower vesicle and a third beside the lower. From the first vesicle the 
heart is formed; from the second, which is above, the brain is formed, 
and from the third the liver is formed; but on this point there is the 
greatest disagreement between the authors, for Hippocrates says that 
the brain is created first, pointing out that the chick’s head is the first 
thing to appear in the egg. Isaac appears to agree, since he compares 
man to an inverted tree with the brain as its root. Others declare that 
the liver is created first, since its action is needed before the others, and 
it must be created first if Nature proceeds in an orderly way. For this 
same reason Aristotle says that the heart is created first because its 
function is the first to be needed; for there can be no nourishment without 
life; life appears first in the heart and therefore the heart is created first. 

The external parts are created from these three members by the pow- 
erful action of Nature. A connection is formed attaching the foetus 
to one of the nipple-like processes, by which menstrual substance is 
transmitted to the foetus, so that the members which are at first white 
become red. Although this connection is formed after the other parts, 
yet it is the first to be perfected. 

In the first 7 days we have the frothy material and the three vesicles 
which form the three principal members; during the next 3 days, the 
internal outlines and beginnings of the other organs appear. During 
the first 6 days nothing is drawn from the uterus, because little or 
nothing of the spermatic material is lost, and if it were lost there would 
be no use restoring it. During the next 6 days the ramifications of 
the veins and arteries are developed by froth and spirits penetrating 
outward. During 12 days the blood makes it way through all parts and 
the fleshy members are formed, as we see in aborted foetuses. During 
the same time the neck is divided from the brain by means of the spine. 
During the next 20 days the membranes become distinct, the shoulders 
from the neck, the neck from the head, the thighs from the buttocks 
and soon. These processes require about 35 days, the total time varying 


106 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


by one or more days, from a minimum of 30 to a maximum of 35. This 
diversity is due to the fact that the heat is more intense in some than 
in others, and the material of variable adaptability; the female body 
is formed more slowly than the male. The time of movement, that is, 
the time required for the appearance of voluntary motion, is twice the 
time of formation, the time of birth is thrice the time of movement. 
Because of the variation of the time of formation, the time of birth is 
also variable; some births occur in the seventh month, some in the 
eighth, and some in the ninth. Everything which has been said about 
the time of formation has been gained by observation of abortions at 
different times, in which the successive stages of formation appeared to 
the view of the ancient physicians. 

In some materials the heat is greater than in others, and since this 
penetrates into the depths, leaving the extremities and external parts 
of the embryo, the latter become covered by an external layer, as eggs, 
for instance, are surrounded by a very thin membrane as well as by a 
hard shell. In the same way some trees are covered by three layers of 
park, and certain fruits possess two or three coats; and thus the foetus 
in the maternal uterus is surrounded by three membranes. The first 
of these, lying next the foetus, is the thinnest, and is called camissia 
puert, or profundatio sudoris, since this layer receives the sweat or waxy 
excretion. Between this membrane and the next the second excretion 
is received, namely, the urine, for after the urine is excreted by the 
kidneys it does not enter the bladder, but passes by way of a certain 
duct to the umbilicus, where it leaves the child and enters the two mem- 
branes, where it remains until at the time of birth it is expelled with 
the child. Its retention serves to soften and moisten the uterus and thus 
to enlarge it to permit the exit of the child, a thing which is done more 
easily by moisture than by dryness. The innermost membrane is thinner 
than the others and is composed of arteries and veins through which 
blood is carried to nourish the foetus, venous blood to the liver, and 
arterial blood to the heart; this tunic is like a net. The first excretion 
is not found in the foetus, because nothing enters the mouth and there- 
fore there is nothing in the stomach or intestines to be excreted, for its 
nourishment comes through the umbilicus in the menstrual blood which 
is transmitted to the liver. 

The foetus is covered by these three membranes not only for the 
reasons which we have mentioned, but also that it may adhere firmly 
to the uterus, for one single attachment by the umbilicus is not sufficient 
and the foetus needs to be attached in many places by these membranes. 
The position of the foetus and of its members is determined by its 
natural joints and folds; its two hands are upon its knees with the arms 
extended upon the two sides, the face upon the hands, and the nose 
between the knees; the knees bent, and the feet touching. 


Anatomia Vivorum (Anatomia Ricardi Anglict) 107 


As time goes on and as the foetus grows and increases, it begins to 
move actively and vigorously and tends to make exit. There are three 
reasons for this, of which the first is the restriction of space in the 
maternal uterus; lack of nutriment is the second cause, for that which 
is transmitted from the uterus does not suffice; the third cause is the 
restriction of inspiration and expiration, the scarcity of air, and the 
warmth of that air which is breathed. 

At the time of birth the foetus turns itself and leaves the uterus with 
the head down and the extremities above, so that the head by its thickness 
and weight makes room for the other members which follow it. When 
the feet come first there is danger that the arms may be broken; when 
one foot comes first there is danger of breaking the other foot; and when 
one arm comes first there is danger of breaking the other arm, and so 
on with the other members. The cotyledons are broken and the blood 
is discharged with the watery fluid which was retained within the mem- 
branes to soften and moisten the uterus. The uterus, in spite of so great 
dilatation, quickly shrinks to its proper and original size. 


41. THe UTILITY oF THE HEART 


(A long paragraph on the heart, lungs, diaphragm, and brain, more or 
less repetitive. I translate only the following subsection on the brain.) 

The brain is divided into three substances, the covering, the marrow, 
and the ventricles filled with spirits which form the source of the nerves 
which arise from the brain. The brain is cold, soft, and moist; it is 
cold that it may not be inflamed by vaporous fumes ascending from the 
stomach nor by the motion of the sensory nerves, nor by the operations 
of sensation, imagination, and cogitation, and that it may, on the other 
hand, moderate by its coolness the heat of the ascending vital spirits. 
It is soft and moist in order to receive sensory impressions and also 
that it may serve as nutriment for the nerves, which themselves are soft 
at first, gradually hardening in their course. The nerves are delicate, 
loosely put together, and flexible; they are soft to receive spirits, loosely 
put together for the sake of easy and swift motion, flexible that they 
may pass easily into all the members. The brain is softer and moister 
in its anterior part on account of the sensory nerves arising there, which 
have to be softer than the motor nerves. In the posterior part it is firmer 
on account of the motor nerves arising there, which have to be firmer 
than the sensory nerves, and also because that part is a storehouse of mem- 
ory and a repository of images. The brain is divided laterally into two 
parts, and thus is a double member like many others; if, perchance, one 
side is injured the other still carries on its function. The posterior part 
of the brain descends with its membranes into the spinal cavity, whence 
nerves, arising on each side, pass into neighboring parts of the body. 


108 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


42. THE OPERATIONS PROCEEDING FROM THE MIND 


(This section consists, in spite of its title, of brief notes on various tissues 
and organs, i.e., cartilage, nerves, ligaments, etc., concluding with the 
following account of the heart.) 

Among all the organs of the body seven are royal and distinguished, 
having much subtlety according to the seven orders of the planets and 
their different centers. These members are the seats of animate and 
intelligent spirits. They are the brain, the heart, the liver, and the 
stomach, with the kidneys, bladder, and testes. According to some 
there are three principal organs, the brain, the heart, and the liver, the 
testes not being principal because they are not essential to the individual 
but to the species. According to others, only two are principal, the brain, 
which is the source of sensation and motion, and the heart, which is 
the source of life. Therefore let us see what is the substance of the 
heart, what its composition, its complexion, its form, its situation, and 
its motion. Its substance is thick, hard, and solid flesh which is generated 
from black bile. In weight it is comparable to stones like coral, pearl 
and jacinth, which have hard substance, for there is no part of the human 
body which weighs as much proportionately as the heart. From this 
it follows that it is dry and cold of complexion, at least according to 
Aristotle; but according to Galen it is hot and dry of complexion because 
it contains in itself the heat of the whole body or the heated material, 
namely, the blood and vital spirits which it forces throughout the body. 
The heart is composed of various similar substances—of hard flesh, as 
we have said, and of cartilage, which is found externally at the base, not 
differing much from bone, and of strong and tough membranes sur- 
rounding the heart itself but not touching it anywhere except upon the 
two ventricles and upon the apex, so that it may dilate and constrict 
according to necessity. Because of this diversity of its parts it resembles 
all members rather than any one member, being itself primal and uni- 
versal. Moreover, it has the form of a pine-cone, somewhat rounded, 
for such a form is less likely to collect harmful superfluities. It is broad 
above in order that the vein and artery may have a wide space from 
which to take origin. Below it is conical and constricted in order that 
it may touch the thorax but slightly, and thus may not readily be dam- 
aged. Internally its form is rugous when constricted, smooth when 
dilated. It has three internal cavities, right, left, and middle. The right 
is the lowest and is turned toward the liver, drawing thence what is 
needful for its nourishment. The left is smaller than the right; it is 
higher and is turned toward the lung, drawing thence the air which it 
needs. Between these cavities is a central opening called fovéa by the 
authors, situated in the fundus of the heart, in which the blood is mixed 
with air, making vital spirits which the heart forces through all the 
members of the body. 


Anatomia Vivorum (Anatomia Ricardi Anglici) 109 


Aristotle lays down three proofs that the heart is the beginning of 
all the veins and arteries in the body. The first is that the heart is the 
source of heat, but the heat is the cause of digestion and therefore the 
heart is the source of the digestion of food, and therefore it is the source 
of the organs in which digestion is performed. These are the veins and 
arteries, and thus the heart is their first and ultimate source. Galen 
denies this, saying that the vena cava goes to the heart bearing nutriment 
from the liver, and since veins pass from the stomach and the three intes- 
tines to the liver, therefore neither the liver nor the heart is the source of 
the veins. It is said against this opinion of Galen that anything which 
takes origin from another will resemble its source; the veins arise from 
the liver and therefore resemble it, for they are cold and dry of com- 
plexion and therefore the liver is phlegmatic. Moreover, the liver is 
composed of veins and arteries, but the components of anything must 
precede it, and therefore the liver is not the source of the vessels; again, 
all the members, except the heart, are penetrated by veins and arteries, 
which carry heat to all parts of the body, including the liver, spleen, kid- 
neys, testicles, stomach, the lung, the diaphragm, and likewise the brain, 
for veins and arteries run from the heart to the front of the brain, from 
the front to the middle, from the middle to the back, and thus even to 
the nerves which arise from the brain. I say that the arteries bearing 
vital spirits to the nerves are supplied by the heart because the brain is 
penetrated by vessels, but the heart is not penetrated, and therefore the 
heart is the source of the arteries. On the other hand, it is said that 
beneath the entire substance of the heart veins and arteries may be found, 
and thus the heart is penetrated by vessels, like all the other members. 
Solution: Both the veins and arteries arise from the root of the heart, 
and as they leave it they penetrate its whole substance; therefore arteries 
and veins coming to the left auricle at its outlet are turned back into its 
external substance; but no other veins nor arteries taking origin from any 
other source are found to enter it. 

Again, just as from the anima, which is simple in essence, all the 
bodily forces flow to all the parts to perform all the operations of the 
anima, so from the cone, the base, and the apex of the heart, the encir- 
cling veins and arteries pass to all parts of the body, carrying heat. Thus 
if the anima is the source of the bodily forces, the heart is the source 
of the veins and arteries. This we concede. 

It is said (according to Aristotle) that anything which takes origin 
from something else will resemble that from which it arises; therefore 
the veins do not arise from the liver. Against this Avicenna remarks 
that coral, which is an extremely hard tree, takes origin from mud and 
soft material at the bottom of the sea. Solution: Aristotle is thinking, 
when he speaks, of the permanent substance, but Avicenna is thinking 
of material in passage. Aristotle says that the heart presides over the 


110 Anatomical Texts of Earlier Middle Ages 


resolution of life and also that the animal perceives nothing but sensation 
and motion; but according to Galen the brain is the center of sensation 
and motion and the liver the seat of digestion. Against this it may be 
said that the heart is either the source of all things or it is not; if-it is 
the universal source, then sensation and motion are made by it and also 
digestion is there begun; if not, on the contrary, it must have some other 
function than that by which sensation and motion are produced and 
some other than that by which digestion is carried on. But if so, what 
is that function? and what is the use of the pulse? If the heart is the 
universal beginning of all the members, its function must be universal, 
and therefore the pulse would be created in all members, which is false, 
for the pulse is in the arteries alone. 

Again, it is said that all moral virtues are located in the heart, and 
this is indicated by the fact that the varied complexion of the heart is 
accompanied by variation of the moral virtues. The moral virtues are 
internal characteristics of the animal, but motor and sensory functions 
are external characteristics, and therefore the heart is the source of the 
latter. 

Again, the motor and sensory functions being located in the heart, 
it follows that the heart is also the seat of the vegetative force, and there- 
fore the heart must be the seat of growth. Galen, however, lays down 
two reasons to prove that the liver is the seat of digestion. First, the 
blood is first found in the liver and therefore the liver is the seat of 
digestion; second, at each stage of digestion the excess substances are 
expelled to their appropriate receptacles, namely, bile to the gall-bladder, 
black bile to the spleen, urine to the urinary bladder; but these receptacles 
surround the liver and not the heart. Therefore the liver is the first and 
immediate seat of digestion and the heart the intermediate seat; and thus 
we explain the differences between Galen and Aristotle. 


43. Tur NERVES 


(The first part of this section is copied, as described on page 39, from 
Rhazes and Avicenna; the latter part is a list of the veins to be phlebotomized 
for various ailments.) 


TRE LIGRARY OF FH 
MAY 3 1 1927 


UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 


II! 


INDEX 
(References in italics are to the translations of the anatomical texts). 
PAGE PAGE 
WOTIMERIIE PAMOTIUG 26, OP ek ids k fawkes A et Ur Geriondntne Coe wen eb os oP a 11 
IIE Mes te er ee Ne ye eri te wat LA 16 51 treer aii yoo ee aeiele es od a iat 53, 65, 86, 105 
Anatomia Cophonis............ 19-21, 27-29 | Gerard of Cremona.................. 37 
Revised Latin text of............: 48-50} .Giles de Corbeil... 2... ccc cntecees 41 
Piremibinceestt 0 vue Les) re Ly. 51-53 | Glands (lymph nodes)...............0. 78 
Anatomia Magistri Nicolai ........... MSO | BOrtSCALG, RODE Ea cae ck cs hen sc oko 9,12 
SPRRSEMEMR LEONEL CONS LGa). Gee sao eo wa ce 67-86 | Heart........ 51, 59, 69, 75, 92, 93, 94, 108-110 
PAS OTST Ss an ge AFA LUE ET CFING DIV OOGE oi 8 ats ss wine «sso k aieleae 85 
Anatomia Parva Galeni. See Anatomia PIIGEPaICe, SAING. ete eae ee 11 
Cophonis. Hippocrates, works of, quoted...... 22, 30, 32 
Anatomia Ricardi (Salernitani)........ 30-33 Glosses on the aphorisms of....... 25, 26 
Anatomia Vivorum (Anatomia Ricardi ELMMGONS AOE tlie. tre ro late ee ate 80,81 
PROOUCIE. 2... Sue how cede. Se AAD uL eT Rlestimer so Ses ee a Se ss 52, 60, 79, 80 
me wenieiation Of. jo)... 2 ktehie teu 4 onli 87—110 11 Visage: Judaeus s,s os ln. sk w- 1a cee, oe 
Anatomy, definition Of 0... 000050005 SLO, Os Tae eUOL On DEVIC er ec euincac.s Cees 27 
Amalomy, wecessHy Of. ic acc ales RIM) MP OUMTICIUS co. a etre ae Pk ae, ou 22, 25, 26 
eCAMMC eS eT canes te ent al Cer tk TOE beds SOONG ol ee ee sheers a a ahy Sh 52, 63, 102, 103 
SINT Ment eee ee ck des ses SP OS A AAA IE te ee os ile ern he be wah whe eg teats Sinos 
Aphorisms of Hippocrates, mediaeval EGLCVONTRICSTINES No otk. hota ca 52, 60 
CAO) Se eek eet Re ara, 25-267 bs Der COMTratruny wisie ss os ols bs ec 17, 21, 41 
PUTER TR TAPS ets 1S Oe ee bin ca ee PAM Cid ADEE Sere stig Oe xt os 52, 61, 70, 81, 100, 101, 109 
PUR TRR EC ee tee etc eae ceca eek os SEO A Abe LONE Five irs Oo tee ers ee 51, 58, 77, 97, 98 
PROMS Bee AT kh i Gs, ero oOOG benatthbew (Parise cn ass caeel . oi alew as 42 
PRE eee ere ie ore alae olin, che ane £25067 Mauris, Magisters ic ucts cade 29, 30 
PG ail ys eR RO ot CRORE Oe A 12 His gloss on the aphorisms of 
PSCC OPES nos an as hy sda Sis 37, 38, 39, 40 RPP DOCTALESY Wie cova an © oe sce 25, 26 
Benedictine monasteries.............. 10 | Member, definition of............... 67, 68, 87 
Beneventan manuscripts............. 10 | Members, classification of, 54, 55, 68, 69, 90, 108 
eee I hey 16 us dus) wes) a itivon, Uae: 6 <i eed PIN AA CIRSES cto 28 c rr dS rear ie keane atte ke? Goa, 4 de 53, 84 
EM OEEME EES eee bt ale ss GIS TO rer eCBUe te has ron ree hee oils oe tele 19 
SLR DER e ois es. eee aso owes 5281.92. | «.Moerbeke;: Williamt.of u o4<G). sta ose i ole 40 
MIE EM tao gw can, 4. clare lac oR e-9' 80,91 | Monkeys, resemblanceioman.......... 51,67 
PIERS eva ee cena cua a es BHT EMOTE CASI tee clale lore alee es ee 2,10 
Bones. See Skeleton PN OYWES Sek 2hak wal on fhe Ww. in es ue is 72, 73, 74, 75, 88 
PPO Ty he os oo Sa06409 30. 71. 1074) Nicolaus, Magister <2 iis 4 aoe ew wn a e's 30-33 
SOV IIE! Btnsiaic. ss aS Se hn cok note 51 Anatomy of, translation.......... 67-86 
CONTRO hire wale Hea ae ace eed 87°) Obituary of Salernum.... .62......4%. 17,21 
CCRBFEL ERE oe os Kiros OST Or whe tS ARR OCEO DOA GUE TW sis cicseds kine eke 51, 58, 59, 79 
Codew® marernitanus. oss oes oe Ho's CGP FeSO CNE EL SIFDUS) cele wc Ov ss 6 waeioncave 52, 60 
Collectio Salernitana... ...16,17, 19, 21,25 | Organs. See Members. 
Constantinus Africanus.............. 12-18 | Ovaries. See Testes (female). 
COGS eR acs ican Seeley we ere SO: DTI ePanteonioe cok: vaeioes 14, 15, 22, 27, 29, 30, 32 
Coping, Anatomy Of... 0. 6 Soe wx 19-21, 27-29 | Passionarius Galeni.................. 11 
Dark Ages, medical literature of....... SEL RES eee eT Ak Bacto s Ui dhe ws sae ea 64 
mnatomical texts OF. 6.853 eons 41) Pertionenm (SiPhac) <5 bse oes 52, 60, 84 
Desiderius (Pope Victor III).......... Pee CLer fe; DCACON ae 6 here 6 Wes bicdiwain e's 12 
DG PRLO OE oS ect. ee tagte's ma ote Bees 22, S901) Petroncelll, Practica. 2... /s enc can il 
Diascorides Lombardicus Psig is cha) Eon ehs -11 | Petrus REIS ae eis ce eee ow eo 26 
TP PAMRSAGDD AR neal foe Safe ke k's 57S a De OL oeU OAM EEE OS VIRRESS hte a oS tev. 5 ORM Ab tig hp 51,57 
PSBECIIOU OT LEH) oso oe oa ec ne oe 8 NO Car eee IATL Soo Aas Shivam cs ack + ate 14, 22, 25, 26 
OOO Be ey See eee w i SS 1 ONS Ace LEE IIR Se hs a gah oaioilel weak ow Save Slia’o wana 81, 91 
ee EER ede Ne ci Wied a die asso os ol’ e 51,57,78 | Pig, advantages of, for dissection ........ 51 
PAE HTN alec is We wih aks 53, 66, 98-100 | Pig, preparation of............-.++..- D1, 56 
First Salernitan Demonstration. See BUdee Nir AON EE DERM nade cis, wins @ Ais! ood dare oe eae 80, 84 
Anatomia Cophonis. et PIrANOw ite ot oe as eee eee ee 77, 96 
SOREN cr The ey nl wh ie dog ws Bese LO0Gr1O Fi A MUASES CO Cot Aia wks WG as ates Mean ee 15,37 
Ce DA OMLOT A ys 8 en oe is hs Seah POA ea RICALOUS ANP UCUS (sis. cic gave’ a apie Sates 41-43 
Rae tiene NT site ie te a ar ni 19, 20, 22, 35, 36 Anatomy of (Anat. Vivorum).,.... 35-41 
re OAOE on. seid As 52, 61, 91, 101 Anatomy of, translation....... ,..87-110 


112 
PAGE 
Ricard malemitamis., sor sicc cree cee 41-43 
ADALONIY OLS foe cee Se eee 30-33 
Richervot. Rheims. 2: sb hen eae 11 
MIALET UE cee eA eee cee cee eae 9-18 
Scholasticism in mediaeval anatomy... 33, 34 
BCL OI ICRACL «a/c... tale eaeeety peneaes cin rane are 40 
BNET OLMTIEN LL. Liiiy aos che eee aa eE Sea ie cites 52, 84 
Second Salernitan Demonstration. .... 21-27 
Translation Glos eee eee 54-66 
DEMENAL VESSELS Oc eee te te ees 64, 85, 104 
SRELAOM OLE Pe CBRE ee Fee 74 
speculum Naturale .... 5s. < so one 33, 41 
DETER Fo Lente oe See Se 63, 85, 88, 105 
SPinal COG eee ce Ek Ck hes See 73, 88 
PANG oie ti Ete seth tS hs re ee ae 73 
PLEO oy hols boas POR ORE Me ee nee SZ FOL OZ 
stephen of Antiociss 0c oy oy ate on bo. ee 
SOMEL tana Cate er tn eee ee 52, 60, 79 
OEE Sg oe cin Coen oe eee Sa eee eT 78 
Lestes (iemaley. vinut sta tee 53, 65, 84, 104 


Index 


PAGE 
TestestMev ace. oss ose eee Pan 63, 84 
Theophiliig ee wii acme s Cae 14, 32 
Lhomas of Brabant...5 aes ee 39, 43 
Toledo, translation at, in thirteenth - 
Century.sy ck dah ikon ee ee ee 33, 34, 37 
LONBUE oie Chic anaes ste ae 56 
Lom gett. ok os o's oe se On ee 56 
Trache@is 9 e065 a asst eee eee 51, 58, 77 
UM Otlichs.. bins x os te ear ee 53, 65, 106 
Oreterss aise ES eee oe 52, 63, 82, 103 
Urinary. bladder oo). cae 2 es es ee 52, 63 
Uterus oc. . ee ee 52, 53, 64, 85, 103, 104 
WUE Shes wwe s a oe ta ee 78 
VARS iota oes be cee 63, 82, 83, 84, 109 
V end Gade s. Yvtk a ees ae 51, 59, 63, 76, 83 
Victor III, Pope (Desiderius)......... 12 
Vincent of Béauvais....0..52.%556 «cen 33, 44 
Vatal spirits ote i Wein ic as wae 54, 76, 105 
Wendover, Richard of. .....25 seas 42 














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